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Political Science As a Subject - Scope, Applicability & Future Roadmap :

Political Science is among the prominent subjects of Humanities and Arts discipline. It encompasses analysis of theoretical and practical aspects of the political structures, as well as, related political, cultural, social and economic milieu through the entire recorded human history. Various aspects like political philosophy of Indian constitution and framework of Indian constitution encompassing various pillars of our democratic systems, fundamental rights, directive principles of state policies, elections, representations, judiciary, legislature, executive, federalism and local governance are deeply studied.

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From political theory perspective, application and scope of political freedom, positive liberty, negative liberty, constraints, harm principles, social justice, equitable distributions, justice mechanisms, jurisprudence, fairness, legal rights, legal studies, equality dimensions, citizenships ( Global & Universal ), nation & nationalism, pluralism, secularism, challenges to peace and development models are widely discussed. 

 

The scientific study of politics is known as political science. It is a social science that studies political institutions, political philosophy, political psychology, political conduct, and related constitutions and laws, as well as systems of governance and power.

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In addition to local and national level politics, their associated political environment, related analytical political science, Pol Science deeply touches upon or enters into the arena of international political science and international politics. Political Science also primarily builds upon the retrospective research and study of contemporary world politics, world orders & developments like Cold War, Non-Aligned Movement, End of Bipolar Blocks & Bipolarity, Unipolar World, New Centres of Power and World Organisations ( European Union, ASEAN, SAARC, BRICS ).

 

Pol Science or Political Science additionally focuses upon the developments in areas of World Environment, Optimum Utilisation of Natural Resources, Global Warming, United Nations & Constituent Organisations, World Security & Terrorism Deterrence, South Asia & Contemporary World, Establishment of Political Systems & Governance across South Asia, Political Democratisation of South Asian countries, Globalisation, World Peace Keeping Initiatives & Forces and Building of Productive Foreign diplomatic relationships. 

 

Political Science delves into the contemporary Indian Political arena too. It emphasises upon the fundamental factors leading to the study of Indian political environment since independence. Political Science primarily researches upon the political nation - building measures, political party systems ( double, single or multi-party ), planning & development policies, security programmes with nuclear deterrence, India's foreign policies, Regional Party Building & Activisms, Local & Regional politics, new social movements, protests and the movers - shakers of Indian political set - up.

 

The outcome of the scientific study & analysis of the afore - mentioned common and prominent political structures, political systems leads to the determination of the direction of evolving political landscape.

 

Merits and demerits of analytical outcomes are noted and optimal political solutions are imbibed into the existing political structures, as well as kept for futuristic adoptions and implementations. Political Science interfaces with other disciplines like Social Science ( Social Studies ) , Sociology, Psychology, History, Civics, Economics - Micro Economics & Macro Economics, Geography, Geospatial Technology, Legal Studies and others. Political Science is multi - disciplinary in nature and has a huge research potential.

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Comparative politics, international relations, and political theory are the three main sub disciplines of contemporary political science. Public policy and administration, domestic politics and governance, political economy, and political methodology are additional noteworthy sub disciplines. The disciplines of economics, law, sociology, history, philosophy, human geography, political anthropology and psychology are also connected to and influenced by political science.

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Political science employs a wide range of methodologies, including those from psychology, social sciences, and political philosophy. Positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behaviourism, structuralism, post - structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism are some of the methodologies. As one of the social sciences, political science employs approaches and techniques appropriate to the questions it seeks to answer : primary sources, like official records and historical documents, and secondary sources, like scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, experimental research, and model development.

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In the second part of the 19th century, modern political science began to develop as a social science and began to dissociate itself from political philosophy and history. It was still unusual for political science to be regarded as a separate discipline from history in the late 19th century. The term "political science" was not always distinguished from political philosophy.

 

The modern discipline has a distinct lineage that includes moral philosophy, political economy, political theology, history, and other fields concerned with making normative judgements about what should be and determining the traits and purposes of the ideal state.

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In the late 19th century, university departments and chairs bearing the name of political science were established, marking the beginning of political science as a field. A person having a PhD or master's degree in politics is typically referred to as a "political scientist." The history of political science has offered a fertile arena for the creation of both normative and positive political science, with each section of the discipline sharing certain historical predecessors.

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Political Science is a core humanities subject for students belonging to School Class 11th and Class 12th levels, as well as, various College level undergraduate and postgraduate course studies. The students of Political Science whether from Colleges, Universities or Schools come from various backgrounds and nationalities. Nevertheless, they follow regular and irregular modes of classes, learning delivery and educational support services. Deep emphasis is upon the value and quality being churned out of the educational oriented support and learning delivery. All this has stark connotations, some that are quite well founded, grounded and indeed deeply cross functional in nature.

 

For school and college level studies different Boards of Education, viz, Central Board of Secondary Education - CBSE, International General Certificate of Secondary Education - IGCSE, Indian Certificate for Secondary Education - ICSE, International Baccalaureate - IB, National Institute of Open Schooling - NIOS, Indira Gandhi National Open University - IGNOU, Rajasthan Board of Secondary and Senior Secondary Education, Uttar Pradesh Board of Secondary and Senior Secondary Education, Private Candidates, Correspondence Studies, Distance Education, Private Patrachaar and other State Level Boards, very well impart educational pedagogy, scope governance and learning delivery.

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In an effort to set political science apart from economics , sociology, commerce, business studies, accounting and other social sciences, the American Political Science Association and the American Political Science Review were established in 1903 and 1906, respectively. 204 people joined the APSA in 1904 ; 1,462 people did so in 1915. Political science departments that were separate from those for history, civics, geography, psychology,  philosophy, law, sociology, and macroeconomics were established in large part because to the efforts of APSA members.

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Pol Science is indeed application oriented. History archives its evolution and milestones. Our team can deliver this knowledge through myriad ways, including, Pol Science online Political Science lesson near me online, CBSE Class 12th Political Science ( Pol Science ) Home Tutors Near Me, Pol Science offline Political Science home teachers near me offline, Pol Science offline Political Science home teacher near me offline, Pol Science online Political Science tutorials near me online and more.

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The Academy of Political Science founded the magazine Political Science Quarterly in 1886. Munroe Smith outlined political science as follows in the first issue of Political Science Quarterly: "The national science. When viewed in this light, it covers both the relationships between states as well as the structure and activities of the state." The International Political Science Association, as well as national organisations in France, Britain, and West Germany, were established in 1949, as part of a UNESCO drive to advance political science in the late 1940s.

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A behavioural revolution that emphasised the systematic and meticulously scientific examination of both individual and group behaviour overtook the discipline in the 1950s and 1960s. Early works in behavioural political science, such as those by Robert Dahl, Philip Converse, and the partnership between sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld and public opinion expert Bernard Berelson, focused on analysing political behaviour rather than institutions or the interpretation of legislative texts.

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The application of deductive, game - theoretic formal modelling tools to create a more analytical body of knowledge in the field took hold in the late 1960s and early 1970s. At this time, there was a spike in the amount of research that looked at political institutions like the US Congress as well as political behaviour like voting using primarily, economics theory ( microeconomics & macroeconomics ), accounting standards, commerce initiatives, legal compliances, Business & Entrepreneurship structures and methodologies.

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The principal proponents of this change were William H. Riker, his colleagues, and his students at the University of Rochester. Despite significant advancements in the field's study on the basis of all the types of scholarship mentioned above, it has been noted that the field's development towards systematic theory has been inconsistent and small.

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The Perestroika Movement in political science was established in 2000 as a response to what its proponents referred to as the mathematization of political science. Those who affiliated with the movement called for political science to be more relevant to people outside of it as well as for a diversity of methodology and approaches.

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According to some theories of evolutionary psychology, humans have built extraordinarily sophisticated psychological defences against politics. But rather than the much bigger political institutions of the modern world, these processes evolved to deal with the small - group politics that typified the environment of the ancestors. This is said to explain a number of significant traits and recurring cognitive biases in modern politics.

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Political science is a social science , as well as a sociological research oriented discipline that very intensively examines how power is distributed and transferred during decision - making, the functions and structures of government, including national and international institutions, as well as political behaviour and public policy. By looking at a variety of variables, including as stability, justice, material riches, peace, and public health, it gauges the effectiveness of governance and specific programmes.

 

By analysing politics, some political scientists try to promote positive theses, which explain things as they are rather than how they ought to be, and others try to advance normative theses, such as by offering particular policy suggestions. Politics, Business, Commerce, Economics and policy studies can be closely related to one another. For instance in comparative studies of which political institutions tend to produce particular kinds of policies.

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Political science offers analysis and forecasts regarding governmental and political issues. Political scientists study systems, processes, and political dynamics of many nations and regions of the world, frequently in an effort to inform the public or influence particular governments. Journalists, special interest groups, legislators, and the electorate may use the frameworks developed by political scientists to study topics. 

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Politicians may seek the advice of political scientists, who may also run for office themselves. Governments, political parties, economics ( microeconomics & macroeconomics ) practitioners, civics implementors, historical archives, geographical investigators, sociological scientists, social researchers, commerce analysts, financial accountants, Business conductors, Entrepreneurial architects, language translators ( Hindi , English , Sanskrit ), Geospatial mappers, Science adopters, Legal Watchdogs, DS Data Science Analysts, Environmental Conservation Regulators, Mass Media Bodies, IP Informatics practitioners and civil services all employ political scientists.

 

Political scientists could be associated with political movements or non - governmental organisations ( NGOs ). Someone with a political science background can contribute value and expertise to corporations in a range of roles. Political scientists are frequently employed by private organisations including think tanks, research institutions, polling companies, and public relations businesses.

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Political scientists may focus on studying political phenomena inside a single nation, such as solely the politics of the United States or China. Public opinion, constitutions, elections, public policy, foreign policy, legislatures, and judiciaries are just a few of the facts that political scientists examine. Political scientists frequently concentrate on the politics of their own nation; for instance, an Indonesian political scientist would specialise in Indonesian politics.

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Political science includes topics like the theory of political transitions and techniques for assessing and foreseeing crises. There have been several approaches suggested for predicting crucial transitions as well as broad markers of crises. One of these, a simultaneous increase in variance and correlations in large groups, was proposed for crisis anticipation and may be employed successfully in a variety of contexts. The examination of the protracted stressful time before to the 2014 Ukrainian economic and political crisis served as a demonstration of its usefulness for early identification of political crises.

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During the years leading up to the crisis, both the overall correlation between the 19 most prevalent worries in Ukrainian society ( which increased by around 64% ) and their statistical dispersion ( which decreased by 29% ) increased at the same time. Some significant revolutions share the trait of being unpredicted. Another notion that was created was the idea that crises and revolutions seem to be inevitable.

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Attempts to forecast regime changes or significant alterations to political institutions are only one aspect of the study of big crises, including both internal and external crises that can have an impact on politics. Political scientists also research how governments respond to unanticipated crises and how citizens in democracies view their governments' crisis planning and management efforts.

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Political scientists approach the study of politics from a wide range of distinct ontological viewpoints and with a number of different tools. Political science is methodologically diverse. Since political science is fundamentally the study of human psychology and behaviour, it can be difficult to replicate or repeat observations made in controlled settings in all facets of politics, even though experimental approaches are becoming more and more popular ( see experimental political science for more information ).

 

Former American Political Science Association President Lawrence Lowell once mentioned this challenge "Since experiments are impossible, we are constrained. Politics is not an experimental science. It is an observational one." In order to spot trends, make generalisations, and develop theories of politics, political scientists have historically observed political leaders, institutions, and individual psychology or group behaviour.

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Political science, like all social sciences, has trouble studying human actors. It is because they can make conscious decisions and can only be partially observed, unlike other subjects like non - human organisms in Biology ( including Botany , BioChemistry , Zoology , Biotechnology , Haematology , MicroBiology ), minerals in geospatial and geosciences, chemical elements in chemistry, stars in astronomy, or particles in physics.

 

Despite the complexity, modern political science has advanced by incorporating a range of techniques and theoretical frameworks to comprehend politics; methodological diversity is a distinctive aspect of modern political science. Field experiments, surveys, survey experiments, case studies, process tracing, historical and institutional analysis, ethnography, participant observation, interview research, and case studies are all examples of empirical political science methodologies.

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To examine a variety of political systems and events, political scientists also create and employ theoretical tools like agent - based models and game theory. Political theorists employ a broad range of perspectives and methods when approaching theories of political phenomena, including feminist political theory, historical analysis linked to the Cambridge school, and Straussian methodologies.

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When sociological norms or psychological biases are linked to political phenomena, for example, political science may research themes that are traditionally the focus of other social sciences. In these situations, political science could adopt their research techniques or adopt a different strategy.

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For instance, Lisa Wedeen has claimed that political science's methodological approach to the concept of culture, developed by Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba and epitomised by writers like Samuel P. Huntington, could profit from a closer kinship with the study of culture in anthropology. Political scientists' approaches may, in turn, affect how academics in other disciplines, like public health, think about and approach political processes and policy.

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Political science can be characterised as "a discipline which lives on the fault line between the 'two cultures' in the academy, the sciences and the humanities," presumably similar to the social sciences as a whole.

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Hence, if there is no separate college of arts and sciences or if the college or university prefers that it be in a different constituent college or academic department, it would be located within the school or college of arts and sciences in most American universities, especially liberal arts colleges. It is possible for political science to be placed as a separate department inside a humanities or liberal arts division or school.

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While political science is typically taught by the university's public policy school at some universities, particularly research universities and in particular those that have strong collaboration between research, undergraduate, and graduate faculty with a stronger more applied emphasis in public administration. Political scientists, who also study classical thought, are marked by a great concern for "modernity" and the contemporary nation state. 

 

Whereas classical political philosophy is primarily defined by a concern for Hellenic and Enlightenment thought. As a result, political scientists and sociologists share more terminology ( e.g., structure and agency ). Political science BA programmes are available at the majority of American schools and institutions. At major universities, PhD or EdD programmes and MA or MAT degrees are typical.

 

Some institutions, particularly those outside of the United States, view political science as a subset of a larger discipline of political studies, history, economics, commerce, business studies & entrepreneurship, accounting, sociology, legal studies, civics, geospatial politics, or government. Political science is more widely used in North America than anywhere else, thus, very much an established and globally acclaimed research oriented discipline.

 

Political studies indicates a broader approach, whereas political science requires the use of the scientific method, albeit the names of degree programmes do not always correspond to their contents. At both the undergraduate and graduate levels, separate programmes typically leading to professional degrees in public administration, public policy, and international relations are prevalent. Nevertheless, not all undergraduate programmes in these subfields are offered at the undergraduate level.

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At both the undergraduate and graduate levels, separate programmes often leading to professional degrees in public administration, public policy, and international relations are common. However, the majority, though not all, undergraduate education in these sub fields is typically found in academic concentrations within a political science academic major.

 

The fact that master's - level programmes in public administration are placed in the department of politics may reflect the fact that many people believe politics to be more closely related to public policy than any other discipline. While Pi Alpha Alpha is a national honour society exclusively for public administration, Pi Sigma Alpha is the primary national honour society for college and university students of government and politics in the United States.

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Writings in the political sciences can be of a variety of genres, including but not limited to, research papers and argumentative essays, writing political theory, essays and articles responding to publications, texts, views, and events. Research papers, which look into an original research question are the most typical type of writing in the political sciences.

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History of Political Science :

In terms of the social sciences, the name "political science" is relatively recent, yet studying political power and the impact it had on history has been going on for centuries. The modern discipline has a clear set of antecedents, including moral philosophy, political economy, political theology, history, and other fields concerned with deriving the qualities and functions of the ideal state and with normative determinations of what ought to be.

 

However, the term "political science" was not always distinguished from political philosophy. The word "political science" as a whole can be deficient in some particular features yet is present around the world in several fields. The Socratic political thinkers, including Aristotle ( "The Father of Political Science" ), might be seen as the ancestors of Western politics ( 384 – 322 BC ). One of the first to offer a practical definition of political science was Aristotle.

 

He thought it was a strong area of science, and it had special control on other areas, like military science. Contrary to how it was portrayed by the Greek philosophers who came before them, political philosophers like Plato and Aristotle started to study political thought in a way that gave more emphasis to the scientific side of political science. Prior to Plato, prominent playwrights, historians, and poets provided the majority of political criticism.

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When the Roman Empire was at its height of prosperity, men were both documenting history as it unfolded and adding their own perspectives, as well as those who were enacting the politics of the day and affecting history as it happened. The prominent historians included Plutarch, Livy, and Polybius. These men concentrated not just on recording the rise of the Roman Empire but also on other countries' ascent and demise.

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Political figures like Cicero and Julius Caesar were among the men carrying out the laws, especially jurisprudence, as they saw fit. While Caesar was a despot who maintained a tight hold on his subjects in order to safeguard his authority, he did implement reforms that would later prove advantageous to the populace. At that time, political science was the process of comprehending the influence of governing bodies, the manner in which rulers chose to enact jurisprudence oriented laws, and the overall history of certain nations.

 

Between the founding of the city of Rome in 753 BC and the fall of the Western Roman Empire or the start of the Middle Ages, over a thousand years passed. Meanwhile, there is a clear transfer of Hellenic culture into the realm of Rome. Greek philosophy and gods were eventually adopted by the Romans.

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Stoicism, a Greek philosophy ( built upon psychological researches ), was incorporated into Roman jurisprudence and law constructs. For the sake of the stability of the state as a whole, the Stoic was dedicated to upholding appropriate hierarchical roles and responsibilities. Seneca, a philosopher, and Marcus Aurelius, an emperor, were two of the most prominent Roman Stoics. Some contemporary writers and historians frequently criticise Seneca, a wealthy Roman nobleman, for not sufficiently adhering to his own teachings.

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On the other hand, The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius are best understood as the philosophical musings of an emperor torn between his philosophical aspirations and the duty he felt to preserve the Roman Empire from its foreign adversaries through his multiple military battles. Polybius claimed that Roman institutions served as the empire's skeleton, while Goldman Law is the medulla.

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P Pol Science derives from philosophy too.

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There was a wider field for political studies after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The advent of monotheism, notably Christianity in the Western tradition, opened up new possibilities for politics and political action. By fusing modern political and philosophical ideas with Christian ones, works like Augustine of Hippo's The City of God redefined the boundaries between religion and politics.

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The study of politics was common in the courts and churches during the Middle Ages. At this time, the majority of the political issues pertaining to the interaction of church and state were clarified and debated. Niccol Machiavelli founded the focus of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political structures and actors during the Italian Renaissance.

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Machiavelli presents a realist perspective in The Prince, contending that even bad measures should be taken into account, if they aid in establishing and upholding a ruler's state. Machiavelli has been referred to as the founder of the "politics model" of political science and also argues against the application of idealistic ideals in politics. In the Discourses of Livy, one of Machiavelli's lesser - known works, he adopted a distinct tenor.

He elaborates on the benefits of republicanism and what it means to be a good citizen in this work. The Discourses do, however, contain certain - The Prince - related ideas as well. Later, the Enlightenment's extension of the scientific paradigm pushed the study of politics even further beyond normative judgements.

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Following is an outline of the Central Board of Secondary Education CBSE / NCERT prescribed syllabus for subject Political Science for Class 11 ( Class 11th - XI ) :

Part A: Indian Constitution at Work
1. Philosophy of the Constitution

The making of the Constitution, the constituent Assembly, Procedural achievements and Philosophy of the Constitution.

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2. Rights in the Indian Constitution

The importance of Rights, Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution, Directive Principles of State Policy, Relationship between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles.

 

3. Election and Representation

Elections and Democracy, Election System in India, Reservation of Constituencies, Free and Fair Elections, Electoral Reforms.

 

4. Legislature

Why do we need a Parliament? Two Houses of Parliament. Functions and Power of the Parliament, Legislative functions, control over Executive. Parliamentary committees. Self-regulation.

 

5. Executive

What is an Executive? Different Types of Executive. Parliamentary Executive in India, Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. Permanent Executive: Bureaucracy.

 

6. Judiciary

Why do we need an Independent Judiciary? Structure of the Judiciary, Judicial Activism, Judiciary and Rights, Judiciary and Parliament.

 

7. Federalism

What is Federalism? Federalism in the Indian Constitution, Federalism with a strong Central Government, conflicts in India's federal system, Special Provisions.

 

8. Local Governments

Why do we need Local Governments? Growth of Local Government in India, 73rd and 74th Amendments, implementation of 73rd and 74th Amendments.

 

9. Constitution as a Living Document

Are Constitutions static? The procedure to amend the Constitution. Why have there been so many amendments? Basic Structure and Evolution of the Constitution. Constitution as a Living Document.

 

Part B: Political Theory
10. Political Theory: An Introduction

What is Politics? What do we study in Political Theory? Putting Political Theory to practice. Why should we study Politial Theory?

 

11. Freedom

The Ideal of Freedom. What is Freedom? Why do we need constraints? Harm principle. Negative and Positive Liberty.

 

12. Equality

Significance of Equality. What is Equality? Various dimensions of Equality. How can we promote Equality?

 

13. Social Justice

What is Justice? Just Distribution. Justice as fairness. Pursuing Social Justice.

 

14. Rights

What are Rights? Where do Rights come from? Legal Rights and the State. Kinds of Rights. Rights and Responsibilities.

 

15. Citizenship

What is citizenship? Citizen and Nation, Universal Citizenship, Global Citizenship.

 

16. Nationalism

Nations and Nationalism, National Self-determination, Nationalism and Pluralism.

 

17. Secularism

What is Secularism? What is Secular State? The Western and the Indian approaches to Secularism. Criticisms and Rationale of Indian Secularism.

 

18. Peace

What is Peace? Can violence ever promote peace? Peace and the State. Different Approaches to the pursuit of peace. Contemporary challenges to peace.

 

19. Development

What is development? Criticism of the dominant. Development Model. Alternative conceptions of development.

 

Prescribed Books:
Indian Constitution at work, Class XI, Published by NCERT
Political Theory, Class XI, Published by NCERT

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The writings of French philosophers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot, to name a few, are models for social science, political and social criticism, and political analysis. Their role in inspiring the French revolution had a significant impact on the global spread of contemporary democracy. Although, neither Machiavelli nor Thomas Hobbes believed in the divine right of monarchs, they both held the view that a strong central authority, such as a monarchy, was required to control the intrinsic selfishness of the individual. Hobbes is best known for his notion of the social contract.

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In contrast, John Locke, the author of Two Treatises of Government and a non-believer in the divine right of kings, allied with Aquinas and opposed both Machiavelli and Hobbes by upholding Aristotle's principle that, as a social animal, man aspires to be happy in a condition of social harmony. Locke argued that man enters this world with a mind that is essentially a tabula rasa, in contrast to Aquinas' preponderant belief in the salvation of the soul from original sin. Locke disagrees with Hobbes' idea of an absolute monarchy, arguing that natural law is based on equality and reason and seeks to preserve humankind's ability to live in peace.

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The Enlightenment's pursuit of reason gave rise to new Western intellectual foundations, which paved the way for laws emphasising the separation of religion and state. The social sciences were founded on the idea that general social theories could be based on principles similar to those that dominated the material sciences. The social environment could be used as a kind of laboratory for studying politics. "The science of politics, like most other sciences, has experienced enormous advancement," Alexander Hamilton stated in 1787, as mentioned in numbers 9 and 51 of The Federalist Papers. The abbé de Saint-Pierre and the marquis d'Argenson, both philosophers and linked enlightenment reformers, both described politics as a science.

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Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin were two other significant Enlightenment players in American politics. In the late 19th century, the Darwinian theories of natural selection and evolution had a big impact. World War I destroyed the assumption that society was steadily improving.

The first generation of American political scientists, who lived from 1882-1900, had as their credo that "politics is past history and history is present politics."

 

The phrase, which was created by the Oxford professor Edward Augustus Freeman, was inscribed on the wall of the seminar room at Johns Hopkins University, where the first extensive training of political scientists and Americans began. It was founded by Westel Woodbury Willoughby, Herbert Baxter Adams at Johns Hopkins, John Burgess and William Dunning at Columbia, Woodrow Wilson at Princeton, and Albert Bushnell Hart at Harvard.

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Their graduate seminars had a strong historical component that frequently reflected their participation in seminars at German universities. Yet as time went on, academic generations after them gradually reduced the history and purposeful fashion. The physical sciences were the inspiration for the second generation.

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Political science developed into a respected academic discipline during the Progressive Era in the United States (1890s –1920s), as well as an applied science that was welcomed as a way to apply knowledge to issues of governance. In terms of applied political science, Woodrow Wilson, Charles A. Beard, and Charles E. Merriam were among the most well-known figures. To implement the most recent findings, numerous cities and governments set up research bureaus.

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The largest professional association for political scientists was founded in 1903 and is called the American Political Science Association. An empirical method known as behavioralism ( Behaviouralism ) first appeared in the United States in the 1930s. It placed a focus on using an objective, quantitative method to understand and forecast political behaviour. Guy explains, "Behavioralism stressed the methodical analysis of all discernible political behaviour forms. Yet it also meant using exact scientific and statistical techniques to standardise testing and try to conduct a value-free investigation of the political environment.

 

Political science's primary function, according to behaviouralists, is to obtain and analyse data as thoroughly and impartially as feasible. Political science should be studied similarly to how hard sciences are studied, according to Petro, p. 6. It is connected to the development of behavioural sciences that were inspired by the natural sciences.

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The term "behavioralism" was acknowledged as a component of a larger scientific trend that was taking place concurrently throughout all of the social sciences, which are now known as the "behavioural sciences," as Guy puts it. This indicates that behavioralism seeks to explain behaviour from an objective, impartial standpoint. Instead of focusing on the traits of organisations like legislatures, executive branches, and courts, behavioralism looks at the behaviour, acts, and acts of individuals in various social contexts and tries to explain how that behaviour connects to politics.

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According to Gunnell, American political scientists have adopted the concept of system as their primary theoretical framework since the 1950s. Although the concept was first introduced in sociology and other social sciences, David Easton clarified how it may be used most effectively in behavioural research on politics. 

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Political science was not a top focus for the academics who ran Canada's institutions up until the 1950s because they were trained in Britain. Political economy research was favoured in Canada. Following 1950, younger academics began obtaining American PhDs at an increasing rate, and Canadian departments supported behaviourism and quantification.

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Compared to American institutions, political science is practised on a lower scale in European universities. Political studies were traditionally taught by law or philosophy teachers. The European Consortium for Political Research ( ECPR ) is a unifying force due to American behavioralism impulses. It supports a number of scholarly publications, such as the European Political Science Review, European Journal of Political Research, and European Political Science ( EPS ), all of which date back to 2001 ( EPSR ).

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Political studies were conducted in the Soviet Union under the cover of several other fields, such as theory of state and law, regional studies, international relations, labour movement studies, "critique of bourgeois theories," etc. From 1955, Soviet academics have participated in the International Political Science Association ( IPSA ), since 1960 by the Soviet Association of Political and State Studies.

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The 11th IPSA World Congress was held in Moscow in 1979. Political science was tightly controlled by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union until the final years of the Soviet Union, which caused mistrust in the discipline. Political scientists were accused by anti-communists of being "fake" scientists and of having worked for the previous government.

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The Institute of Current Social Theories and the Institute of International Affairs, two significant institutes involved in political science, were dissolved after the fall of the Soviet Union, leaving the majority of their members without employment. The initial wave of anticommunist sentiment and ideological assaults targeted these institutions. Professional political scientists from all throughout Russia are united by the Russian Political Science Association today.

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The Arthashastra of Chanakya, one of the earliest works of political science in India, was composed in the third century B.C. The Arthashastra is a book on political philosophy that covers a variety of topics, including economic policy, military tactics, and international relations.

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Three of the Hinduism's four Vedas, the Mahabharata, and the Pali Canon are the first political documents that come to mind when considering the forerunners of ancient Indian politics. The Rigveda, Samhitas, and Bramanas are among the Vedic writings. The Manusmriti was published about 200 years after Chanakya's period and quickly rose to prominence as another important political work for India at the time.

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Contrary to popular opinion, Taoism and Confucianism are important political ideas as well as major religions. Together with legalism and mohism, these political ideas also come from Spring and Autumn Era Ancient China. This time in Chinese history was known as the Golden Era of Chinese philosophy because it gave rise to a wide variety of concepts that were openly discussed.

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According to Sima Tan, there are six traditional schools of thought in Chinese philosophy, and the four political philosophies stated above are among them. Confucianism dominated Chinese political thought during the Imperial Era and changed with the times, being greatly influenced by Legalism.

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Writing commentary on Aristotle's works allowed Middle Eastern Aristotelians like Avicenna and Maimonides, to continue the school's traditions of empiricism and analysis. Later, Arabia turned away from Aristotle's political science philosophy and shifted its attention to Plato's work, Republic. With this change, Republic became the cornerstone of Judeo-Islamic political thought, as seen by Al-Farabi and Averroes' writings. Political analysis can be evident in works like Omar Khayyam's Rubaiyat and Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, which were written in mediaeval Iran.

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Following is the outline of the Central Board of Secondary Education CBSE / NCERT National Council for Educational Research and Training prescribed syllabus for subject Political Science for Class 12 ( Class 12th - XII ) :

 

Part A: Contemporary World Politics
1. Cold War and Non-aligned Movement

Emergence of two power blocs/Bipolarity, Non-aligned Movement (NAM).

 

2. The End of Bipolarity

Disintegration of Soviet Union, Unipolar World, Middle East Crisis - Afghanistan, Gulf War, Democratic Politics and Democratization - CIS and the 21st Century (Arab Spring).

 

3. New Centres of Power

Organizations: European Union, ASEAN, SAARC, BRICS.

Nations: Russia, China, Israel, India.

 

4. South Asia and the Contemporary World

Conflicts and efforts for Peace and Democratization in South Asia: Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives.

 

5. United Nations and its Organizations

Principle Organs, Key Agencies: UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO, ILO, Security Council and the Need for its Expansion.

 

6. Security in Contemporary World

Security: Meaning and Types; Terrorism.

 

7. Environment and Natural Resources

Environmental Movements, Global Warming and Climate Change, Conservation of Natural Resources.

 

8. Globalization

Globalization: Meaning, Manifestations and Debates.

 

Part B: Politics in India Since Independence
9. Challenges of Nation-Building

Nation and Nation Building
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Integration of States
Legacy of Partition: Challenge of Refugee, Resettlement, Kashmir Issue, Nehru’s Approach to  Nation - Building
Political Conflicts over Language and Linguistic Organization of States.

 

10. Planning and Development

Changing nature of India’s Economic Development
Planning Commission and Five year Plans
National Development Council, NITI Aayog.

 

11. India's Foreign Policy

Principles of Foreign Policy; India’s Changing Relations with Other Nations: US, Russia, China, Israel
India’s Relations with its Neighbours: Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Myanmar
India’s Nuclear Programme
 

12. Parties and the Party Systems in India

Congress System
Bi-party System
Multi-party Coalition System

 

13. Democratic Resurgence

Jayaprakash Narayan and Total Revolution
Ram Manohar Lohia and Socialism
Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay and Integral Humanism
National Emergency
Democratic Upsurges - Participation of the Adults, Backwards and Youth

 

14. Social and New Social Movements in India

Social vs. New Social Movements
Farmer’s movements
Worker’s Movements
Women’s Movements
Ecological Movements

15. Regional Aspirations

Rise of Regional Parties
Punjab Crisis
The Kashmir issue
Movements for Autonomy

 

16. Indian Politics: Trends and Developments

Era of Coalitions: National Front, United Front, United Progressive Alliance [UPA] - I & II, National Democratic Alliance [NDA] - I, II, III & IV,

Issues of Development and Governance.

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Political Thought - A Relook : 

The chronological development of political thought as well as its conceptual and methodological evolution are all included in the history of political thought. Philosophy, jurisprudence - law, history, psychology, civics, geography, geospatial technology GT, social sciences, economics, commerce, sociology, global financial accounting, business studies, entrepreneurship, EVS environmental sciences, IP informatics practices, DS Data Science and political science are among the academic fields that cross when studying the history of political ideas. 

 

Ancient Greece is often cited as the birthplace of Western political theory specifically to Athenian democracy and Ancient Greek philosophy. It is customary to highlight the political philosophy of intellectuals like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle as being particularly significant and influential in such works. Comparatively, non - Western political traditions and histories have frequently been under represented in academic studies.

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