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Hindi as a Language - Overview & Scope :

The Indo-Aryan language of Hindi ( Devanagari script Hindi ), or more properly Modern Standard Hindi ( Devanagari: [c], in Hindi ) , is primarily spoken in the Hindi Belt region, which includes sections of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindustani, which is mostly based on the Khariboli dialect of Delhi and the surrounding regions of North India, has been described as a standardised and Sanskritized register.

One of the two official languages of the Government of India, together with English, is Hindi, which is written in the Devanagari script. In addition to being an additional official language in three states, it is the official language in nine states and three union territories. One of the 22 official languages of the Republic of India is Hindi.

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In the Hindi Belt, Hindi is the primary language spoken. In other areas of India, it is also spoken, albeit to a lesser level usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi. The term "Hindi" is legally recognised in a number of other countries outside of India, but these languages do not correspond to the Standard Hindi language we have just defined; rather, they are descended from dialects like Awadhi and Bhojpuri.

They include Caribbean Hindustani, which is spoken in Guyana, Suriname, and Trinidad & Tobago, as well as Fiji Hindi, which is recognised as an official language in Fiji. Standard Urdu, another recognised register of Hindustani, is mutually intelligible with standard Hindi since both languages share a shared conversational base and are mutually intelligible apart from the script and formal vocabulary.

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Around the world, Hindi is spoken more frequently than Mandarin, Spanish, and English combined. It ranks behind Mandarin and English as the third most spoken language in the world when combined with mutually understandable Urdu. Hindi is the third most spoken language in the world, including first and second language speakers, according to Ethnologue ( 2022, 25th edition ) statistics.

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Formerly, the Indo-Gangetic Plain's inhabitants were referred to as "Hindus." It was taken from the classical Persian word hind, which means "of or belonging to Hind ( India )" ( Iranian Persian : hendi )  ( hence, "Indian" ). In the past, people frequently referred to themselves as Hindu or Hindav ( from Persian: "of or belonging to the Hindu/Indian people" ). Amir Khusrow, for instance, frequently utilised this moniker in his poems.

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The words "Hindi" and "Hindu" have their origins in Old Persian, which took them from the Sanskrit name Sindhu, which denotes the river Indus. "Indus" (for the river) and "India" are the equivalent Greek names for the land of the river. Between Shauraseni Prakrit and 'Sauraseni Apabhrams'a ( from Sanskrit apabhrams'a "corrupt" ), which appeared in the 7th century CE, Hindi is a direct descendent of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit, just like other Indo-Aryan languages.

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The Sanskrit and Prakrit roots of Old Hindi were enhanced with loanwords from Persian, giving rise to the current form of Hindustani during the reign of the Delhi Sultanate, which ruled over the majority of modern-day north India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal, and Bangladesh. The Hindustani vernacular, which continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent and is represented in the Hindustani lexicon of Bollywood films and music, became a manifestation of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement.

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Many dialects and languages of the Hindi Belt rose to prominence through literary standardisation before Hindi became standardised on the Delhi dialect, including Avadhi and Braj Bhasha. The 12th and 13th centuries CE saw the development of the first Hindi literature. These early epics were included in this body of work, including translations of the Dhola Maru into Marwari, the Prithviraj Raso into Braj Bhasha, and the writings of Amir Khusrow into the Delhi dialect. 

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The Delhi dialect, the local vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding area, served as the foundation for modern Standard Hindi and eventually replaced prior prestige dialects like Awadhi and Braj. In the latter half of the Mughal era ( 1800s ), Urdu, which is thought of as another variety of Hindustani, gained linguistic status and suffered strong Persian influence. By the end of the 18th century, modern Hindi and its literary history began to develop. John Gilchrist is most known for his research on the Hindustani language, which the British colonists and indigenous people used to communicate throughout northern India including what is now Pakistan.

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An English-Hindustani Dictionary, A Grammar of the Hindustanee Language, The Oriental Linguist, and many other works were assembled and written by him. He published his Perso-Arabic, Ngar, and Roman transliterated versions of his Hindustani dictionary. ​He was also instrumental in establishing University College London and the Gilchrist Educational Trust, both of which are well-known accomplishments. Around the end of the 19th century, a movement emerged to continue Hindi's development as a standardised variant of Hindustani distinct from Urdu.

The first Indian state to embrace Hindi was Bihar, which replaced Urdu as its sole official language in 1881. Nonetheless, Urdu was made a second official language in the state in 2014.

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The Indian government established the following customs after gaining independence : The Government of India established a committee in 1954 to create a grammar of Hindi; the committee's report was published as A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi in 1958. The Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture is standardising the orthography using the Devanagari script in order to create written consistency, improve the shape of some Devanagari symbols, and include diacritics to represent sounds from other languages.

The official language of the Republic of India was changed from Urdu, which had previously been used in British India, to Hindi written in the Devanagari script on September 14, 1949, by the Indian Constituent Assembly. To achieve this, a number of influential figures, most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Kaka Kalelkar, Maithili Sharan Gupt, and Seth Govind Das who even participated in a discussion in Parliament, organised and fought for Hindi across the country. As a result, the initiatives were successful after Hindi was made the national language on Beohar Rajendra Simha's 50th birthday, on September 14, 1949. Today, Hindi Day is observed.
 

The official language of the Indian Commonwealth is covered in Part XVII of the Indian Constitution. English and Hindi in Devanagari script are among the official languages of the Union that have been prescribed by Article 343 : (1) Hindi written in Devanagari script shall be the official language of the Union. Indian numerals in their international format must be utilised for all official purposes by the Union. (2) Regardless of what is stated in clause (1), the English language must continue to be used for all official purposes of the Union for a period of fifteen years following the beginning of this Constitution. 

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With the caveat that the President may, by decree, authorise the use of Hindi in addition to English and the Devanagari numeral system in addition to the international system of Indian numerals for any official purposes of the Union throughout the aforementioned period. The Indian Constitution's Article 351 states : It is the responsibility of the Union to encourage the use of Hindi, to develop it so that it can serve as a medium of expression for all elements of the composite culture of India, to ensure its enrichment by assimilating without compromising its genius the forms, styles, and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other Indian languages listed in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, whenever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primary sources from these languages.

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According to the provisions of Articles 344(2) and 351, it was intended that by 1965, only Hindi would be used by the Union Government for official purposes, leaving state governments free to use any other language they choose. The Official Languages Act of 1963, which allowed for the continued use of English for all official purposes indefinitely, was passed as a result of widespread opposition to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India like those in Tamil Nadu. However, the constitutional requirement for the Union Government to promote the spread of Hindi was retained and has significantly influenced its policies.

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According to Article 344 (2b), the official language commission must be established every ten years to make recommendations for the union government about the progressive use of Hindi and the imposition of limits on the use of the English language. In reality, the official language commissions regularly work to advance Hindi while allowing English to be used in official capacities by the union government. Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand are among the Indian states where Hindi is the official language.

Together with Gujarati, Hindi is a recognised official language in Gujarat. In areas of West Bengal where more than 10% of the population speaks Hindi, it serves as a second official language. A "co-official language" may also be designated by each; in Uttar Pradesh, for example, this language is typically Urdu depending on the party formation in power. The following Union Territories also recognise Hindi as an official language: Delhi, the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and Daman and Diu.

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Despite the fact that the constitution makes no mention of a national tongue, Hindi is largely accepted as India's official tongue. This frequently causes conflict and divisive debate. Hindi is not the national language of India, according to the Gujarat High Court, which ruled in 2010, because the constitution does not specifically name it as such. While denying Gangam Sudhir Kumar Reddy bail in a case involving the Narcotics, Drugs, and Psychotropic Substances ( NDPS ) Act in 2021, the Bombay High Court cited Hindi as the national language. Reddy, a native Telugu speaker, had objected to having his statutory rights read in Hindi.

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The Bombay High Court's observation was contested by Reddy in a Special Leave Petition to the Supreme Court, who argued that the lower court had overlooked the fact that Hindi is not India's official language. Hindi is our national language, for your kind information," an employee of the Indian meal delivery service Zomato informed a Tamil Nadu app user in 2021. The employee was dismissed by Zomato as a result, and soon after, she was promptly reinstated. The Madhya Pradesh High Court's ruling that the Hindi version of an enactment shall take precedence if there is a discrepancy between it and its English counterpart was delayed by the Supreme Court in 2018.

The importance that was thus given to English over Hindi in the decision highlights English's societal superiority over Hindi. Outside Asia, the Awadhi language an Eastern Hindi dialect with influence from Bhojpuri, Bihari languages, Fijian and English is spoken in Fiji. It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji, where it referred to it as "Hindustani", however in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji, it is simply called "Fiji Hindi" as the official language. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.

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The Awadhi language, an Eastern Hindi dialect, is spoken in Fiji and has influences from Bhojpuri, Bihari languages, Fijian, and English. According to the 1997 Fijian Constitution, it was designated as an official language under the name "Hindustani," however in the 2013 Fijian Constitution, it is simply referred to as "Fiji Hindi" as the official language. In Fiji, 380,000 people speak it. According to the 2011 Nepal census, 77,569 people in Nepal speak Hindi as their first language, while 1,225,950 people speak it as a second. Paramananda Jha, an Indian-born supporter of Hindi, was chosen to serve as Nepal's vice president. In July 2008, he took his oath of office in Hindi.

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Due to this, there were demonstrations in the streets for 5 days, student protesters burned his effigies, and 22 districts went on general strike. His oath was declared illegal by the Nepal Supreme Court in 2009, yet he was retained as vice-president notwithstanding this. Jha exclaimed in a "angry" tone, "I cannot be forced to take the oath now in Nepali. I would prefer to take it in English.

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In South Africa, Hindi is a language that is protected. The Pan South African Language Board is mandated to promote and uphold respect for Hindi along with other languages by the South African Constitution. Rajend Mesthrie's doctoral dissertation from 1985 claims that despite Hindi and other Indian languages having been spoken in South Africa for the past 125 years, no academic research have been done on their use, development, or present decline.

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The Emirate of Abu Dhabi has decided to make Hindi the third official court language. [d] This status entitles the Indian employees in the UAE to submit grievances with the local labour courts in their native tongue. In addition to being an official language of India's government alongside English, Hindi is the primary language of northern India, which is home to the Hindi Belt.

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For those who live in Haflong, Assam, and speak various native tongues, a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has emerged as a lingua franca. In Arunachal Pradesh, where native speakers of more than 50 dialects are present, Hindi has developed into a common language. Many Pakistanis can easily understand Hindi because they speak Urdu, which is also a standard register of the Hindustani language and is extensively viewed in Pakistan. 

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Due to the widespread popularity and impact of Bollywood movies, songs, and performers in the area, a sizable portion of the Afghan populace, particularly in Kabul, is also able to speak and understand Hindi-Urdu. A sizable portion of the Madheshis, who have roots in north India but have migrated to Nepal over many centuries, also speak Hindi. In addition, a sizable Indian diaspora that originates in or is native to India's "Hindi Belt" speaks Hindi. In nations like the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji, and Mauritius, where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities, a sizeable portion of the North Indian diaspora resides.

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In addition to India, there are 8 million Hindi speakers in Nepal, 863,077 in the US, 450,170 in Mauritius, 380,000 in Fiji, 250,292 in South Africa, 150,000 in Suriname, 100,000 in Uganda, 45,800 in the UK, 20,000 in New Zealand, 20,000 in Germany, 26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago, and 3,000 in Singapore. Hindi and Urdu are mutually comprehensible dialects of the same language from a linguistic perspective. A core lexicon of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived terms is shared by both Hindi and Urdu.

In contrast to Urdu, which is written in the Perso-Arabic script and employs more Arabic and Persian loanwords than Hindi, which is written in the Devanagari script, Hindi has a greater proportion of words that have Sanskrit roots. Linguists generally agree that the two registers are two standardised varieties of the same language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu, due to this and the fact that the two have an identical grammar. In India, Hindi is the official language that is spoken the most.

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Being one of India's 22 official languages, Urdu also has official status in Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Bihar. It is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan. The Devanagari script, an abugida, is used to write Hindi. Devanagari is written from left to right and has 11 vowels and 33 consonants. Devanagari, unlike Sanskrit, does not record the erasure of the schwa in spoken Standard Hindi, making it less phonetically accurate for Hindi.

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The official method for translating Hindi into Latin used by the Indian government is called Hunterian transliteration. There are also other more systems, including IAST, ITRANS, and ISO 15919. Online, Romanized Hindi, often known as Hinglish, predominates. Palakodety et al. found that 52% of comments on YouTube were in Romanized Hindi, 46% were in English, and 1% were in Devanagari Hindi after analysing the comments.

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Naturally, Shauraseni Prakrit provided a significant amount of Hindi's lexicon in the form of tadbhava terms. In Prakrit, this process typically entails compensatory lengthening of the vowels that come before consonant clusters. The majority of Modern Standard Hindi's vocabulary contains tatsam borrowings from Sanskrit, particularly in the academic and technical domains. Uddh Hindi, also known as pure Hindi, is the official standard of Hindi, from which most of the Persian, Arabic, and English vocabulary has been replaced with neologisms that combine tatsam terms.

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It is regarded as a more respectable dialect than other, more informal varieties of Hindi. Often excessive use of tatsam terms causes issues for native speakers. These might feature Sanskrit consonant clusters that aren't found in native Hindi, which would make pronunciation challenging. Sanskritization is the practise of replacing apparently foreign terminology with new terms created utilising Sanskrit components. These neologisms are mostly calques of English words that have been incorporated into spoken Hindi. 

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Persian has a major influence on Hindi as well, having been standardised from spoken Hindustani. Persian was merely used as a conduit for Arabic because the first borrowings, which date back to the middle of the 12th century, were exclusive to Islam ( e.g. Muhammad, islam ). Persian eventually replaced Hindi as the major administrative language in the Hindi heartland during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire. In the 17th century, Persian borrowings peaked and pervaded all facets of life. Hindi adopted even grammatical structures, such as the izafat. Following the partition, the Indian government promoted a Sanskritization campaign that marginalised the Persian component of Hindi.

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The four main genres or styles of Hindi literature are Bhakti ( devotional; Kabir, Raskhan ); Srngar ( beautiful; Keshav, Bihari ); Vigatha ( epic ); and adhunik ( modern ). The Bhakti movement's impact and the creation of lengthy, epic poems are two characteristics of mediaeval Hindi literature. It was mainly written in different dialects of Hindi, especially Avadhi and Braj Bhasha, however to some extent it was also written in Delhavi, which is the origin of Modern Standard Hindi. Hindustani rose to prominence during the British Raj. Devaki Nandan Khatri's Chandrakanta, which she wrote in 1888, is regarded as the first legitimate prose piece in contemporary Hindi.

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Munshi Premchand, who is regarded as the most beloved personality in the world of Hindi fiction and the progressive movement, is the one who introduced realism in Hindi prose literature. Through the writings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Bhartendu Harishchandra, and others, literary, or Shityik, Hindi became more widely read. Hindustani has been increasingly popular among educated people thanks to the growth of newspapers and publications. According to Hindi literature, the Dvived Yug, or "Era of Dwivedi," spanned the years 1900 to 1918.

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It bears the name of Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, a notable contributor to the development of Modern Standard Hindi in poetry and to the expansion of Hindi poetry's permissible subject matter beyond the traditional realms of religion and passionate love. Hindi literature experienced a romantic resurgence in the twentieth century. This is referred to as Chayavad ( shadow - ism), and the literary luminaries associated with this school go by the name Chayavadi. The four main Chayavadi poets are Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi "Nirala," Mahadevi Varma, and Sumitranandan Pant.

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The post-modernist phase of Hindi literature known as Uttar Adhunik is characterised by a rejection of early styles that imitated the West as well as the excessive decoration of the Chayavad movement, as well as a return to straightforward language and themes from nature. Hindi movies, music, and literature have all been made available online. Google noted in 2015 that consumption of Hindi material had increased by 94% year over year and that 21% of Indian consumers preferred Hindi-language content. Digital editions of many Hindi newspapers are also available.

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Hindi literature, ( Hindi : romanized : hindi sahitya ) covers works written in the numerous dialects of Hindi, each of which has its own writing system. The earliest examples of Hindi literature can be found in poetry written in Apabhramsa languages including Awadhi, Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, and Marwari. Three major literary genres make up Hindi literature: Gadya prose, Padya poetry, and Caump prose. Based on the date of composition, it can be broadly divided into five well - known forms or genres in terms of historical development.

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The literature was written in a variety of dialects, including Marwari, Magahi, Bhojpuri, Chhattisgarhi, Braj, Bundeli, Awadhi, and Kannauji. Some authors consider Modern Standard Hindi, a register of Hindustani written in the Devanagari script, to be the sole source of modern Hindi literature, excluding Urdu literature published in the Hindustani language.

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The Adi Kal literature dating from before the 15th century CE was created in the central Indian districts of Kannauj, Delhi, and Ajmer. The epic poem Prithviraj Raso, written by Chand Bardai ( 1149 – c. 1200 ), is regarded as one of the first pieces of Hindi literature. When Muhammad of Ghor invaded Delhi and Ajmer, Prithviraj Chauhan, the illustrious monarch of those two cities, had Chand Bardai as his court poet.

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The last king of Kannauj, Jayachandra, preferred Sanskrit to regional tongues. His court poet was Harsha, the creator of Naishdhiya Charitra. The other notable authors during this time were Nalha, the royal poet of Ajmer, and Jagnayak, also known as Jagnik, the royal poet of Mahoba. 

Nevertheless, the majority of the literature from this time period was burned by the army of Muhammad of Ghor when Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in the Second Battle of Tarain. The authenticity of the scant number of manuscripts and scriptures from this time period also raises questions. 

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There are also other poems from this era that are Siddha and Nathpanthi, but again, their authenticity is questioned. The Vajrayana was a later branch of Buddhism that included the Siddhas. According to some academics, the language used in Siddha poetry is Magadhi Prakrit rather than an older dialect of Hindi. Nathpanthis were Hatha yoga practitioners. There are also several poetic works from this time period by Jain and Rasau, the heroic poets. 

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Dakkhini or Hindavi were used in South India's Deccan region. It thrived during the Delhi Sultanate and afterwards, the Hyderabadi Nizams. The script used was that of Persia. Nonetheless, Hindavi literature can be regarded as an early form of Hindi literature. Numerous Deccani authorities, like Sheikh Ashraf and Mulla Vajahi, referred to this dialect as "Hinduvi." Others, including Roustami, Nishati, and others, favoured the term Deccani. Hindi was the name Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri gave to it. Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan was the first author in Deccani.

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He produced three prose works : Risala Sehwara, Hidayatnama, and Mirazul Aashkini. Nishatul Ishq was written by Abdulla Hussaini, his grandson. Nizami was the first Deccani poet. Many saint-poets rose to fame in the latter half of this era and the early Bhakti Period, including Ramanand and Gorakhnath. Some of Vidyapati's Maithili compositions display the earliest incarnation of Hindi. The Bhakti movement's influence on mediaeval Hindi literature can be seen in the creation of lengthy, epic poems.

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The dialects in which literature was developed were Awadhi and Braj Bhasha. The two important works in Avadhi are Ramacharitamanas by Tulsidas and Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi. The two most notable works written in the Braj dialect are Surdas' Sur Sagar and Tulsidas' Vinaya Patrika. Another widely used language was sadhukaddi, especially when it came to Kabir's dohas and poetry.

In terms of poetry forms, the Bhakti period saw significant theoretical advancement, largely based on a synthesis of more traditional forms. They comprised rhyme schemes such as the Doha ( two - liners ), Sortha, Chaupaya, or four-liner, among The Nirguna school, which believed in a formless God or an abstract name, and the Saguna school, which believed in a God with qualities and worshipped Vishnu's incarnations, were the two schools of Bhakti poetry. The Nirguna school, which includes Kabir and Guru Nanak, was significantly influenced by Adi Sankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta theory.

They held to the idea of Nirgun Nirakaar Brahma, also known as the Formless One. The Saguna school, which was primarily represented by Vaishnava poets such as Surdas, Tulsidas, and others, was a logical development of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy advanced by people like Madhavacharya and others.others. Moreover, poetry was classified at this time according to the numerous Rasas. The Adi Kaal, also known as the Vir Gatha Kaal, was distinguished by an excess of poetry in the Vir Rasa or heroic poetry, but the Bhakti Yug saw a far more varied and vibrant type of poetry that covered the full spectrum of rasas from Shringara rasa ( love ), Vir Rasa, and more ( Heroism ).

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As seen by the main compositions glorifying Rama and Krishna like Sur Saravali, Ramacharitamanas, and Sur Sagar, this school was predominately Vaishnava in orientation. With the emergence of numerous Muslim Bhakti poets like Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, a minister to the Mughal emperor Akbar and a great devotee of Krishna, this was also the era of tremendous integration between the Hindu and Islamic elements in the arts. Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana was also a great devotee of Krishna.

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The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also incredibly secular in nature, and its proponents Kabir and Guru Nanak attracted a sizable following from all castes and religions. The erotic theme proliferated in Hindi literature during the Ritikavya or Ritismagra Kavya era. Riti, which means "process," is the name of this period because it was a time when poetry figures and theory were fully formed. The Bhakti movement's core characteristic — the emotional components of poetry — was substantially diminished by this emphasis on poetry theory, and the poetry's actual content lost significance.

Somewhere between the Bhakti and the Reeti Eras, the Saguna School of the Bhakti Yug separated into the two schools of Rama and Krishna devotion. Ain e Akbari ki Bhasha Vachanika by Heera Lal and Treatise on Kabir by Rewa Maharaja were the first Hindi works written in the Devanagari script or Ngar script. Each book was published in 1795. Sanskrit Hitopadesha was translated into Hindi by Munshi Lallu Lal and printed in 1809. In 1886, Lala Srinivas Das wrote the Hindi novel Pariksha Guru in the Ngar script. Bhagyawati, a Hindi novel by Shardha Ram Phillauri, was first published in 1888.

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Devaki Nandan Khatri's Chandrakanta, which she wrote in 1888, is regarded as the first legitimate prose piece in contemporary Hindi. Munshi Premchand, who is regarded as the most beloved personality in the world of Hindi fiction and the progressive movement, is credited for introducing realism to Hindi prose literature.

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The British East India Company founded Calcutta's Fort William College in 1800. J. B. Gilchrist, the college's president, hired lecturers to create works in Hindustani. Lallu Lal's Prem Sagar, Sadal Mishra's Naasiketopaakhyan, Sadasukhlal of Delhi's Sukhsagar, and Munshi Inshallah Khan's Rani Ketaki ki Kahani are a few of these books. Premchand, who is regarded as the most beloved personality in the world of Hindi fiction and the progressive movement, is the one who introduced realism in Hindi prose literature. Prior to Premchand, religious themes, entertaining narratives, and fairy or fantastical tales dominated Hindi writing.

Numerous different languages have been used to translate Premchand's books. In Hindi literature, the Dwivedi Yug, often known as the "Era of Dwivedi," spanned the years 1900 to 1918. It bears the name of Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who made significant contributions to the development of modern Hindi poetry and expanded the permissible range of topics for Hindi poetry beyond the conventional ones of passionate love and religion. He supported Hindi poetry that emphasised social change and nationalism.

In 1903, Dwivedi was appointed editor of Saraswati, the country's first monthly publication in Hindi, which had been published since 1900. He utilised it as a platform to advocate for changes to Hindi literature. The poem Bharat-bharati by Maithili Sharan Gupt, which recalls India's former splendour, was one of the most well-known of the time. Bharatgit by Shridhar Prathak is another well-known poetry from the era. 

Many works of poetry from this time period have been referred to as "versified propaganda" by certain academics. Lucy Rosenstein asserts: "It is a public message in poem that uses useful but unattractive language. It is puritanical poetry that is deeply concerned with moral principles and social issues, with artistic considerations taking a back seat. There is a lack of creativity, originality, poetic sensibility, and expression; the metre is constrictive; and the idiom is awkward."

But, she continues, the time was crucial for building the groundwork for contemporary Hindi poetry, and it did demonstrate attention to social realities of the day. While she discusses Contemporary Hindi poetry, she also notes that the lack of beauty is a common trait of "young" poetry. In the absence of a poetic tradition in contemporary Hindi, poets frequently modelled their forms after Braj, and later on Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali, and English forms, which were frequently inappropriate for Hindi. The poetry' themes tended to be collective rather than individual. Characters were frequently depicted as social types rather than as unique people.

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Hindi literature experienced a romantic resurgence in the twentieth century. The literary characters associated with this school are known as Chhayavaadi, which is also known as Chhayavaad or shadowism. The four main Chhayavaadi poets are Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi "Nirala," Mahadevi Varma, and Sumitranandan Pant. Ramdhari Singh, often known as "Dinkar," was a renowned poet who used some Chayavaadi elements in his works despite also writing in other genres.

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Hindi poetry was in its adolescence during this Neo - romantic era. It is distinguished by exquisite expression and an outpouring of strong emotion. The four leading poets of this time period stand for the best Hindi poetry. A distinctive aspect of this time period is the poets' emotional and occasionally active involvement in the struggle for national independence, their attempts to comprehend and absorb the vast spirit of a magnificent ancient culture, and their towering genius, which utterly eclipsed all of the literary "talk abouts" of the following seven decades.

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Following Pragativad ( Progressivism ) by Gajanan Madhav Muktibodh and other writers is Prayogvad ( Experimentalism ) of Ajneya and the Tar Saptak poets, also known as Nayi Kavita ( New Poetry ) and Nayi Kahani ( New Narrative ) of Nirmal Verma and others. The name of one of the many schools of poetry that emerged in the 1950s was Nakenwad, which took its name from the first letters of its three founders, poets of distinction Nalin Vilochan Sharma, Kesari Kumar, and Naresh Mehta. Nalin Vilochan and Kesari Kumar weren't just great poets, they were also outstanding critics with a broad understanding of literary history.

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Their critical approach is characterised by a synthesis or coordination of numerous fields of human knowledge, including philosophy, history, art, and culture, which are all used to evaluate and analyse literary works. Poetry and Shayari have a long history in Hindi. Shringar, Karun, Veer, Hsya, and other genres of Kavita based on Ras, Chhand, and Alankar are only a few examples. Humorous comedy poetry in Hindi is known as Hasya Kavita. Hindi kavi sammelans are a big reason why it is so well-known. Children's rhymes in Hindi are called bal kavita.

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Hindi poetry has been extensively documented. Kavitakosh and Kavita are two of the largest online collections of Hindi poetry. Hindi Kavita is the most elegant content that has attracted new audiences who weren't looking for Hindi content or poetry. Manish Gupta established this movement in 2014, and it has since created a brand-new market and highlighted a number of projects.

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Award-winning poets, academics, journalists, and actors, actresses, and others have stepped forward to support and further the cause. The sound track of Indian movies has benefited greatly from Hindi Kavita's contributions as well. Many well-known musical masterpieces have been heard. 

In Hindi, satirical rhetoric is referred to as Vyangya. Writings of Vyangya have the humour and soul of sarcasm. Some of the more well-known authors in this field are Harishankar Parsai ( Hindi : ) ( 22 August 1924 - 1995 ). He was a well-known satire and humorist in contemporary Hindi literature, and he is renowned for his straightforward writing.

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The renowned Indian authors Rahul Sankrityayan, Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan, Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan "Ajneya," and Baba Nagarjun all devoted their lives to the Hindi Travel Literature or Yatra Vritanta. One of India's most widely travelled academics, Rahul Sankrityayan spent 45 years of his life travelling outside of his country of origin.

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The "Father of Hindi Travel Literature," as he is referred to. Baba Nagarjun, popularly known as "Janakavi - the People's Poet," was a well-known Hindi and Maithili poet who also wrote a number of novels, short stories, literary biographies, and travelogues. In the late 19th century, Bhartendu Harishchandra established Hindi theatre and playwriting with his works Satya Harishchandra ( 1875 ), Bharat Durdasha ( 1876 ), and Andher Nagari ( 1878 ). Jaishankar Prasad then rose to prominence as the next major name in Hindi playwriting with works like Skanda Gupta (1928), Chandragupta ( 01931 ), and Dhruvswamini ( 1933 ). 

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As the fight for independence gained momentum, playwrights addressed issues of nationalism and subversive ideas against the British, but to avoid censorship they adapted themes from mythology, history, and legend and used them as vehicles for political messages. This trend has persisted to the present, though it is now used to highlight social, personal, and psychological issues rather than issues that are obviously political; however, street theatre broke this trend in the decades that followed in the post-independence era. Like IPTA-inspired Naya Theatre of Habib Tanvir performed from the 1950s to the 1990s, Safdar Hashmi's Jana Natya Manch did from the 1970s to the 1980s.

Following independence, the newly formed nation presented playwrights with fresh topics to address and express, and Hindi playwriting displayed more succinctness and symbolism. But, it did not produce as much as Hindi fiction or poetry did. Nevertheless there are writers who have consistently improved their stagecraft, such as Jagdish Chandra Mathur ( Konark ) and Upendranath Ashk ( Anjo Didi ). Ashadh Ka Ek Din ( 1958 ), Adhe Adhure and Lehron Ke Rajhans, Dharamvir Bharati, who penned Andha Yug, and other playwrights like Surendra Verma and Bhisham Sahni were all followed by another generation of pioneers in Hindi playwriting.

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One author who gave their complete attention to the genre of essay writing is Kuber Nath Rai. His essay volumes Gandha Madan, Priya neel-kanti, Ras Aakhetak, Vishad Yog, Nishad Bansuri, and Parna mukut have significantly improved the essay form. He was proud of his Indian ancestry and an expert on both Indian culture and western literature. His appreciation of the natural world, his interest in Indian folklore, his preference for an agricultural society over one dominated by machines, as well as his romantic outlook, aesthetic sensibility, keen awareness of modern life, and classical style place him among the best contemporary essayists in Hindi.

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