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Chemistry ( Organic Chemistry & Inorganic Chemistry ) - A Preliminary Review :
Chemistry, including organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry and other sub-branches, is one of the critical disciplines of modern day physical sciences. Since time immemorial, Chemistry has been applied and leveraged extensively in various ways. All the applications of Chemistry have been for the development and upliftment of our human centric social systems, as well as the corresponding sociological consequences.
Right from ancient days to modern times, Organic Chemistry and Inorganic Chemistry have played indispensable roles in varied functions. Latter include war - fares, utilities' developments ( enhancements & demolitions ) , domestic applications, outer space explorations and an ocean of multitude application scopes.
Chemistry has been omnipresent in almost all industrial domains. Rare elements, metals, non - metals, compounds, mixtures, colloids, liquids, metallurgy have been quite pivotal to the existence and evolution of human race. We owe a lot to the science of Chemistry and look forward to further innovations in the near future. The scientific study of matter's characteristics and behaviour is known as chemistry.
Chemistry is a branch of physical sciences that studies the components of matter, including atoms, molecules, and ions, as well as the compounds they form. It also includes the changes they go through when reacting with other substances, as well as their composition, structure, qualities, and behaviour. The nature of chemical bonds in chemical compounds is another topic covered in chemistry.
Chemistry sits in between the critical physical sciences and biological sciences' disciplines. Latter pertain to subjects of physics and biology described reasonably in terms of the extent of its topic. It is frequently referred to as the primary science since it establishes a fundamental framework for comprehending both basic and applied scientific disciplines.
For instance, aspects of plant growth in botany, the formation of igneous rocks in geology, the formation of atmospheric ozone and the degradation of environmental pollutants in ecology, the characteristics of the soil on the moon in cosmochemistry, the action of drugs in pharmacology, and the gathering of DNA evidence at crime scenes in forensics are all explained by chemistry.
Alchemy, a term used to describe a prior set of practises that combined aspects of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, physics, Biology, Biotechnology, mysticism, Pharmacy and medicine, underwent a change during the Renaissance, giving rise to the modern word "chemistry." Even while the pursuit of turning lead or other base metals into gold is frequently linked with alchemy, alchemists were also intrigued by many of the issues raised by contemporary chemistry.
The Arabic word al - kīmīā is also the source of the English word alchemy. Since al - kīmīā is a derivative of the Ancient Greek word, it may have Egyptian origins. The latter is derived from the word Kemet, which is the Egyptian language's historical name for Egypt. Alternately, al - kīmīā might be a translation of a Greek term that means "cast together."
The quantum mechanical approach is currently used to explain atomic structure. The study of fundamental constituents such as atoms, molecules, substances, metals, crystals, and other aggregates of matter is where traditional chemistry begins. It is possible to study matter in its solid, liquid, gaseous, and plasma phases alone or in combination. Chemistry studies interactions, reactions, and transformations that are typically the outcome of atom - to - atom interactions that re - organise the chemical bonds that keep atoms together.
A chemistry lab is used to study these behaviours. Different types of laboratory glassware are frequently used in chemistry labs. Glassware, however, is not essential to chemistry and is not used in a significant amount of experimental, applied, and industrial chemistry. A chemical reaction is the change of one or more chemicals into another. Rearranging electrons in chemical bonds between atoms forms the basis of such a chemical reaction.
Chemical equations, which frequently use atoms as subjects, can be used to symbolically represent it. In the equation for a chemical reaction, there are an equal amount of atoms on the left and right. A nuclear reaction or radioactive decay is the name for the transition when there are not an equal amount of atoms on either side. Chemical laws are a set of fundamental guidelines that govern the kind of chemical reactions that a substance can have as well as any accompanying energy changes.
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In nearly all chemical investigations, energy and entropy issues are crucial. Chemical substances are categorised according to their chemical compositions, phases, and structural characteristics. Chemical analysis tools, such as spectroscopy and chromatography, can be used to examine them. Chemists are scientists who conduct chemical research. The majority of chemists focus on one or more subfields. The study of chemistry requires a number of concepts, some of which are fundamental.
Chemistry defines matter as anything composed of particles that has rest mass, volume, and occupies space. Although some particles, like the photon, do not have rest mass, the particles that make up matter have. A mixture of things or a pure chemical compound can both be considered matter. The simplest unit in chemistry is the atom. It is made up of an electron cloud surrounding a dense core known as the atomic nucleus.
The electron cloud is made up of negatively charged electrons that orbit the nucleus, whereas the nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons together referred to as nucleons. The protons' positive charge and the negatively charged electrons' balance each other out in a neutral atom. The mass of a nucleon is around 1,836 times that of an electron, and the nucleus is extremely dense. However, an atom's radius is 10,000 times greater than its nucleus.
The atom is also the smallest unit that can be envisioned to preserve the chemical characteristics of the element, such as electronegativity, ionisation potential, preferred oxidation state(s), coordination numbers, and preferred types of bonds to form, such as metallic, ionic, and covalent. A chemical element is a pure material made up of only one type of atom, which is distinguished by the atomic number, which is denoted by the letter Z, and the specific number of protons present in each of its atoms' nuclei.
The total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus is the mass number. Although every atom in a given element will have the same atomic number, not every atom in that element will necessarily have the same mass number; such atoms are referred to as isotopes. For instance, all atoms of the chemical element carbon contain 6 protons in their nucleus, however carbon atoms can also have mass numbers of 12 or 13.
The periodic table, which arranges elements by atomic number, serves as the typical display of the chemical elements. Groups are arranged as columns and Periods as rows in the periodic table. When spotting periodic tendencies, the periodic table is helpful. A pure chemical substance made up of multiple elements is called a compound. A compound's characteristics differ significantly from those of its constituent parts.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) establishes the norms for compound naming. According to the organic naming system, organic substances are named. According to the inorganic nomenclature system, names for inorganic substances are developed. The electropositive and electronegative components are separated into two classes when a compound comprises more than one component.
Additionally, a system to index chemical substances has been developed by the Chemical Abstracts Service. Each chemical compound is identified in this system by a number known as its CAS registration number. The tiniest, indivisible unit of a pure chemical substance, a molecule has its own distinct set of chemical properties and the capacity to interact chemically with other molecules in a variety of ways.
This concept, however, only applies to substances made up of molecules, which is not the case for many substances. The majority of the time, molecules are made up of a collection of atoms that are joined by covalent bonds, making the structure electrically neutral and ensuring that all of the valence electrons are in pairs with other electrons, either in bonds or lone pairs. As a result, unlike ions, molecules are electrically neutral entities.
The result is frequently referred to as a molecular ion or a polyatomic ion when this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge. However, because molecular ions must typically exist in well-separated forms, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a mass spectrometer, due to the discrete and separate nature of the molecular notion. Common sulphate or nitrate ions are two examples of charged polyatomic groupings that are found in solids but aren't typically thought of as "molecules" in chemistry.
Radicals are created when certain compounds have one or more unpaired electrons. While the majority of radicals are rather reactive, others, like nitric oxide ( NO ), can remain stable.
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The "inert" or noble gas elements such as helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon have a single atom as their smallest discrete unit, whereas the other isolated chemical elements are made up of either molecules or networks of atoms that are chemically connected to one another. Unfamiliar things like water, air, and a variety of organic compounds including alcohol, sugar, petrol, and other medications are all made up of recognisable molecules.
The majority of the solid materials that make up the Earth's solid crust, mantle, and core are chemical compounds lacking discrete molecules, proving that not all substances or chemical compounds are made up of discrete molecules. These other forms of things, such ionic compounds and network solids, are structured in such a way that recognisable molecules as such do not exist. As the smallest repeating structure within the material, formula units or unit cells are used instead to discuss these chemicals.
Mineral salts like table salt, solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and well-known silica and silicate minerals like quartz and granite are a few examples of these things. The geometry, often known as a molecule's structure, is one of its primary properties. While the structures of diatomic, triatomic, and tetraatomic molecules may be unimportant, linear, angular pyramidal, etc., the structures of polyatomic molecules, which are made up of more than six atoms of different elements, can be important to the chemical nature of the molecule.
The term "chemical substance" refers to a class of matter with a certain composition and set of characteristics. A mixture is a group of different components. Air and alloys are two examples of mixes. The mole is a unit of measurement that represents a quantity of a substance, often known as a chemical quantity. One mole is defined as containing precisely 6.022140761023 particles, such as atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons; this quantity is referred to as the Avogadro constant.
The amount of a certain substance per volume of solution is known as molar concentration and is often expressed in mol/dm3. Chemicals can exist in a variety of phases in addition to the distinct chemical characteristics that set them apart. However, some more unusual phases are incompatible with specific chemical properties. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications.
A phase is a collection of chemical system states that, under a variety of pressure or temperature conditions, exhibit similar bulk structural features.
Density and refractive index are two examples of physical characteristics that typically lie within phase-specific ranges. The phase transition, which occurs when energy is introduced into or removed from the system in order to rearrange the system's structure rather than alter the bulk conditions, determines the phase of matter.
In other cases, the phase boundary might be continuous rather than discrete, and in these circumstances, the matter is said to be in a supercritical state. A triple point is created when three states coincide based on the conditions, and since it is invariant, it is an easy approach to specify a group of requirements. Solid, liquid, and gas phases are the most well-known types of phases.
A lot of chemicals have different solid phases. For instance, the three solid iron phases of alpha, gamma and delta change. Latter strongly depend upon the quantification of various focal physical quantities, like temperature and pressure. The arrangement of the atoms in the crystal structure, or crystal structure, is a key distinction between the various solid phases.
Plasmas, Bose-Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials are examples of less well-known phases. The most well - known phases deal with three - dimensional systems, but two-dimensional systems can also have analogues that can be defined, which has drawn interest because it is relevant to biological systems.
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Atoms that form molecules or crystals together are said to be connected to one another. A chemical bond can be pictured as a multipole equilibrium between the negative charges that oscillate around the nuclei and the positive charges that are inside of them. The energies and distributions describe how readily an electron is available to bind to another atom, going beyond simple attraction and repulsion.
Chemical bonds can form due of the Van der Waals force, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, or covalent bonds. These relationships all have different potentials associated with them. These interactions are produced by these potentials and keep atoms bound in molecules or crystals. Molecule structure and composition can be explained by valence bond theory, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model ( VSEPR ), and the idea of oxidation number in many basic compounds.
A metal loses one or more of its electrons to become a positively charged cation, and the non-metal atom subsequently gains the electrons to become a negatively charged anion. This process creates an ionic bond. The electrostatic force of attraction between the two oppositely charged ions is caused by their ionic connection. For instance, chlorine ( Cl ), a non - metal, receives this electron to become Cl while sodium ( Na ), a metal, loses one electron to form a Na+ cation.
Electrostatic attraction holds the ions together, resulting in the formation of sodium chloride ( NaCl ), or regular table salt. An electrically neutral group of connected atoms is known as a molecule when one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms in a covalent bond. As a result of valence electron sharing, each atom will have eight electrons in its outermost shell, forming the electron configuration of a noble gas.
The term "octet rule" refers to the tendency of atoms to join in a fashion that results in each atom having eight electrons in its valence shell. To achieve this stable arrangement, some elements, like lithium and hydrogen, only require two electrons in their outermost shell. According to the duet rule, these atoms are approaching the helium electron configuration, which has two electrons in its outer shell, and are thus said to be following this rule.
Many ionic structures can also be predicted using concepts from classical physics. Valence bond theory is less useful for more complex compounds, such as metal complexes, and alternate methods, like the molecular orbital theory, are typically used. Chemistry defines energy as a property of a substance resulting from its atomic, molecular, or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is always accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, the energy of the substances involved is either increased or decreased.
Heat or light are two ways that energy is transported from the environment to the reaction's reactants. Therefore, the energy of a reaction's products may be greater or lower than that of its reactants. Exergonic reactions are those in which the final state has a lower energy value than the initial state. Endergonic reactions have the opposite property.
Chemistry defines energy as a property of a substance resulting from its atomic, molecular, or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is always accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, the energy of the substances involved is either increased or decreased. Heat or light are two ways that energy is transported from the environment to the reaction's reactants. Therefore, the energy of a reaction's products may be greater or lower than that of its reactants.
Exergonic reactions are those in which the final state has a lower energy value than the initial state. Endergonic reactions have the opposite property.
If a reaction emits heat into its surroundings, it is said to be exothermic. Endothermic reactions take heat from their environment as they go. Without the reactants overcoming an energy barrier known as the activation energy, chemical reactions are always impossible.
The Boltzmann's population factor, which is the likelihood that a molecule will have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T, relates the rate of a chemical reaction to the activation energy E at a certain temperature T. The Arrhenius equation describes this exponential relationship between a reaction rate and temperature.
Heat, light, electricity, or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound can all serve as the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to take place. An associated idea In chemical thermodynamics, free energy, which also takes into account entropy considerations, is a highly helpful tool for forecasting the viability of a process and figuring out the equilibrium state of a chemical reaction. Only when the overall change in the Gibbs free energy is negative is a reaction possible. For electrons, atoms, and molecules, there are only a finite number of potential energy states.
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Outline of Chemistry ( Organic Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry ) Syllabus for Class 12 ( XII - 12th ) - Part 1 :
The Solid State :
General Characteristics of Solid State,
Amorphous and Crystalline Solids,
Classification of Crystalline Solids,
Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells,
Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell,
Close Packed Structures,
Packing Efficiency,
Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions,
Imperfections in Solids,
Electrical Properties,
Magnetic Properties
Solutions :
Types of Solutions,
Expressing Concentration of Solutions,
Solubility,
Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions,
Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions,
Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass,
Abnormal Molar Masses
Electrochemistry :
Electrochemical Cells,
Galvanic Cells,
Nernst Equation,
Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions,
Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis,
Batteries,
Fuel Cells,
Corrosion,
Chemical Kinetics,
Rate of a Chemical Reaction,
Factors Influencing Rate of a Reaction,
Integrated Rate Equations,
Temperature Dependence of the Rate of a Reaction,
Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions
Surface Chemistry :
Adsorption,
Catalysis,
Colloids,
Classification of Colloids,
Emulsions,
Colloids Around Us
General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements :
Occurrence of Metals,
Concentration of Ores,
Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore,
Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy,
Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy,
Oxidation Reduction,
Refining,
Uses of Aluminium,
Copper,
Zinc and Iron
The p-Block Elements :
Group 15 Elements,
Dinitrogen,
Ammonia,
Oxides of Nitrogen,
Nitric Acid,
Phosphorus – Allotropic Forms,
Phosphine,
Phosphorus Halides,
Oxoacids of Phosphorus,
Group 16 Elements,
Dioxygen,
Simple Oxides,
Ozone,
Sulphur – Allotropic Forms,
Sulphur Dioxide,
Oxoacids of Sulphur,
Sulphuric Acid,
Group 17 Elements,
Chlorine,
Hydrogen Chloride,
Oxoacids of Halogens,
Interhalogen Compounds,
Group 18 Elements );
The d-and f-Block Elements :
Position in the Periodic Table,
Electronic Configurations of the d-Block Elements,
General Properties of the Transition Elements (d-Block),
Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements,
The Lanthanoids,
The Actinoids,
Some Applications of d- and f-Block Elements );
Coordination Compounds :
Werner's Theory of Coordination Compounds,
Definitions of Some Important Terms Pertaining to Coordination Compounds,
Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds,
Isomerism in Coordination Compounds,
Bonding in Coordination Compounds,
Bonding in Metal Carbonyls,
Importance and Applications of Coordination,
Compounds
They are established by the laws of quantum mechanics, which call for quantization of the energy in a bound system. Excited molecules/atoms are those with a higher energy state. The molecules and atoms of a substance are frequently far more reactive and therefore more prone to chemical reactions when they are in an excited energy state. An object's energy and the energy of its environment are always what determine the substance's phase.
Water ( H2O ), a liquid at room temperature because the molecules are connected by hydrogen bonds, is an example of a substance whose intermolecular interactions are such that they cannot be overcome by the energy of the environment. This occurs in a more ordered phase like a liquid or solid. At normal temperature and standard pressure, hydrogen sulphide ( H2S ) is a solid because the molecules are held together by weaker dipole-dipole interactions.
The magnitude of the energy quanta emitted from one chemical entity determines how much energy is transferred to another. However, since phonons, which are responsible for a substance's vibrational and rotational energy levels, have far less energy than photons, which are used for the electronic energy transfer, heat energy is frequently transferred from one substance to another more readily. Heat is therefore more easily transported between material compared to light or other kinds of electrical energy.
This is because vibrational and rotational energy levels are closer together than electronic energy levels. For instance, thermal or electrical energy can be transferred from one substance to another more effectively than UV electromagnetic radiation. The examination of spectral lines can be used to identify distinct chemical compounds by using their characteristic energy levels. Chemical spectroscopy frequently makes use of many spectra, such as IR, microwave, NMR, ESR, etc.
By examining the radiation spectra of far - off objects, such as stars and distant galaxies, spectroscopy can also be used to determine the composition of those objects. Chemical energy is a word that is frequently used to describe a substance's capacity to change through a chemical reaction or to change other chemicals. A chemical reaction is defined as the transformation of a chemical substance as a result of its interaction with another material or with energy.
As a result, the term "chemical reaction" refers to the "reaction" that occurs when one substance comes into contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution or is exposed to energy or both. The reaction's components and the system environment, which may consist of specified vessels, often laboratory glassware, exchange some energy as a result. The production or dissociation of molecules is the splitting of a single molecule into two or more molecules is one of the possible outcomes of chemical reactions.
Another possible outcome of chemical reactions could be the rearranging of atoms within or between molecules. Similarly, Chemistry is full of various means and approaches that pertain to various possible outcomes of chemical reactions. Chemical bonds are frequently formed or broken during chemical processes. Common chemical reactions include oxidation, reduction, dissociation, neutralisation of acids and bases, and molecular rearrangement.
A chemical equation can be used to symbolically represent a chemical reaction. While the number and type of atoms on either side of the equation are equal in a non-nuclear chemical reaction, this is only true for protons and neutrons in a nuclear reaction. The mechanism of a chemical reaction refers to the stages that may result in the reorganisation of chemical bonds during the process. It is possible to imagine that a chemical reaction occurs in a number of steps, each of which may proceed at a different rate.
Thus, numerous reaction intermediates with varying stabilities might be anticipated throughout a process. To explain a reaction's kinetics and relative product mix, reaction mechanisms are put forth. Numerous physical chemists focus on investigating and putting forth the mechanics of diverse chemical processes. When suggesting a mechanism for a chemical reaction, certain empirical rules, such as the Woodward - Hoffmann rules, are frequently useful.
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IUPAC's gold book defines a chemical reaction as "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species." Accordingly, a chemical reaction might be simple or complex in nature. This concept is further qualified by the fact that it takes experimentally observable interconversion of conformers into account. This definition states that such visible chemical reactions typically include sets of molecular entities.
However, it is frequently conceptually convenient to refer to changes involving a single molecular entity as a microscopic chemical event. A charged species known as an ion is an atom or molecule that has either received or lost one or more electrons. When an atom loses one electron, it becomes a positively charged ion or cation because it now has more protons than electrons.
An atom becomes a negatively charged ion or anion when it picks up an electron, leaving it with more electrons than protons. In the case of sodium chloride, or NaCl, the Na+ and Cl- ions combine to produce a crystalline lattice of neutral salts. Hydroxide ( OH - ) and phosphate ( PO4 3- ) are two examples of polyatomic ions that do not break apart during acid-base interactions. Plasma is made up of gaseous material that has undergone complete ionisation, typically at a high temperature.
Frequently, a chemical can be categorised as either an acid or a basic. There are numerous ideas that account for acid-base behaviour. The Arrhenius theory, which maintains that an acid is something that, when dissolved in water, emits hydronium ions, and a base is something that, when dissolved in water, emits hydroxide ions, is the most basic. According to the Bronsted-Lowry acid-base theory, bases are the chemicals that accept a positive hydrogen ion that an acid donates to another material during a chemical reaction.
The Lewis acid-base hypothesis, which is based on the synthesis of new chemical bonds, is a third prevalent theory. According to Lewis' hypothesis, an acid is a chemical that can take a pair of electrons from a base to establish a new bond, whereas a base is a substance that can give a pair of electrons to form a new bond. The history of this idea shows that there are numerous additional methods to classify a substance as an acid or a base. There are two typical ways to gauge acid strength.
Based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, one measurement is pH, which measures the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution on a negative logarithmic scale. As a result, low pH solutions have a lot of hydronium ions and are therefore considered to be more acidic. The second measurement, based on the Bronsted - Lowry definition, is the acid dissociation constant ( Ka ), which gauges a substance's resemblance to an acid in terms of how it behaves.
That is, compounds with higher Ka values are more likely than those with lower Ka values to donate hydrogen ions during chemical processes. All chemical processes that modify the oxidation state of atoms by either gaining electrons or reduction or losing electrons or oxidation are referred to as redox or reduction - oxidation reactions. Oxidising agents, oxidants, or oxidizers are terms used to describe chemicals that have the capacity to oxidise other substances.
An oxidant depletes another material of its electrons. Reducing agents, reductants, or reducers are terms used to describe chemicals that have the capacity to reduce other substances. A reductant becomes oxidised when it donates electrons to another material. Additionally, it is referred to as an electron donor since it "donates" electrons. The term "oxidation" or "reduction" actually refers to a change in the oxidation number; an actual electron transfer may never take place.
As a result, it is best to describe oxidation as an increase in oxidation number and reduction as a drop in oxidation number. Although the term "equilibrium" is used frequently throughout the sciences, it is particularly relevant to chemistry whenever it is possible for a substance to exist in more than one type of phase or in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can interact with one another. Even if its composition is constant, a system of chemical compounds in equilibrium is frequently not static.
Nevertheless, the molecules of the substances continue to interact, leading to a dynamic equilibrium. Thus, the idea refers to a situation where variables like chemical composition remain constant across time. Certain laws, which are now fundamental ideas in chemistry, control chemical reactions. Among them are The Avogadro law, Law of Beer - Lambert, Boyle's law (1662), which links volume and pressure, Volume and temperature are related by Charles' law ( 1787 ), The diffusion laws of Fick, The law of Gay - Lussac ( 1809 ) linking pressure and temperature, The principle of Le Chatelier, Henry's law, Hess's law and more.
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Haloalkanes and Haloarenes :
Classification,
Nomenclature,
Nature of C–X Bond,
Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes,
Preparation of Haloarenes,
Physical Properties,
Chemical Reactions,
Polyhalogen Compounds );
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers :
Classification,
Nomenclature,
Structures of Functional Groups,
Alcohols and Phenols,
Some Commercially Important Alcohols,
Ethers );
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids :
Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group,
Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones,
Physical Properties,
Chemical Reactions,
Uses of Aldehydes,
Nomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group,
Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids,
Physical Properties,
Chemical Reactions,
Uses of Carboxylic Acids );
Amines :
Structure of Amines,
Classification,
Nomenclature,
Preparation of Amines,
Physical Properties,
Chemical Reactions,
Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts,
Physical Properties,
Chemical Reactions,
Importance of Diazonium Salts in Synthesis of Aromatic Compounds );
Biomolecules :
Carbohydrates,
Proteins,
Enzymes,
Vitamins,
Nucleic Acids,
Hormones );
Polymers :
Classification of Polymers,
Types of Polymerisation Reactions,
Molecular Mass of Polymers,
Biodegradable Polymers,
Polymers of Commercial Importance );
Chemistry in Everyday Life :
Drugs and their Classification,
Drug-Target Interaction,
Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs,
Chemicals in Food,
Cleansing Agents
The principles of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics are all derived from the law of conservation of energy. Even in contemporary physics, the law of conservation of mass holds true in isolated systems. When non - material "energy" such as heat, light, or kinetic energy is taken out from a non - isolated system, special relativity demonstrates that some mass will also be lost as a result of mass - energy equivalence.
High energy losses cause measurable mass losses, which is a crucial problem in nuclear chemistry. Law of definite composition, despite the fact that in many systems, most notably biomacromolecules and minerals, the ratios typically take the form of fractions and frequently call for huge numbers.
Other prominent laws in Chemistry worth ruminating are the Multiple Proportions Law and the Raoult's law.
The development of chemistry has a long history that dates back to the beginning of time. Civilizations have been using the techniques that would later serve as the foundation for the many fields of chemistry since several millennia BC. Examples include the extraction of metals from ores, the production of pottery and glazes, the fermentation of beer and wine, the extraction of compounds from plants for use in medicine and perfume, the conversion of fat into soap, the production of glass, and the production of alloys such as bronze and many other varied applications.
Alchemy, which used a non-scientific method to comprehend the components of matter and their interactions, came before chemistry. Alchemists performed experiments and recorded the results, setting the scene for modern chemistry even though they were unable to understand the nature of matter and its transformations.
In his book The Sceptical Chymist in 1661, Robert Boyle who was sceptical of the elements but convinced in alchemy played a significant role in elevating the "sacred art" as a distinct, important, and philosophical profession. While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with substance and its changes, the scientific approach that chemists used in their work provided the essential distinction.
With the work of Antoine Lavoisier, who created a law of conservation of mass that required precise measurement and quantitative measurements of chemical events, chemistry as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy became a recognised science. The history of thermodynamics and subsequent chemistry are interwoven, particularly because of Willard Gibbs' contributions.
As new findings and hypotheses increase the use of the science, the concept of chemistry has evolved over time. According to renowned scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, the term "chymistry" referred to the study of the physical laws or physics governing mixed bodies. Christopher Glaser, a chemist, defined "chymistry" as a scientific art form in 1663. It taught people how to dissolve bodies, extract many substances that made up those bodies, unite those substances once again, and elevate those substances to higher perfection.
Georg Ernst Stahl defined "chemistry" in 1730 as the science of dissolving mixed, compound, or aggregate substances into their fundamental components and creating such entities from those components. Jean - Baptiste Dumas used the term "chemistry" to describe the branch of science that studied the rules and effects of molecular forces in 1837. This definition continued to alter until, in 1947, Linus Pauling accepted it to imply the science of substances, their structure, their qualities, and the reactions that transform them into other substances.
In 1998, Professor Raymond Chang expanded the concept of "chemistry" to include the study of matter and the transformations that it goes through.
Early civilizations including the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Indians gathered practical knowledge about the arts of metalworking, pottery, and dyeing but didn't create a formal theory. Aristotle's idea of the four elements, which stated unequivocally that fire, air, earth, and water were the primary ingredients from which everything is made as a mixture, is credited with establishing the first basic chemical hypothesis in Classical Greece.
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Greek atomism first appeared in writings by philosophers like Democritus and Epicurus in 440 BC. The Roman philosopher Lucretius developed the idea in his work De rerum natura or On the Nature of Things, which was published in 50 BCE. Greek atomism was solely philosophical in origin, unlike contemporary ideas of science, and it paid little attention to empirical observations or chemical experiments.
In ancient Greek philosophy, the idea that "Nothing comes from nothing" may be found in Empedocles about the 4th century BC, is an early example of the concept of mass conservation. "Because nothing can be created from nothing, and nothing can be brought about to completely destroy what is," the author writes. The author Epicurus stated that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be" in his description of the nature of the universe in the third century BC.
The practise of alchemy initially spread throughout the Hellenistic world. Alchemy manifested mixing occultism and magic into the study of natural ingredients. The ultimate objective was that of transforming materials into gold and finding the elixir of perpetual life. Early Byzantine times saw the continuation of work, particularly the development of distillation, whose most notable practitioner was the Greek - Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis in the fourth century.
After the Muslim conquests, alchemy continued to be developed and practised throughout the Arab world. Through Latin translations, it spread from there and from Byzantine relics into mediaeval and Renaissance Europe. The Arabic writings ascribed to Jabir ibn Hayyan offered a methodical taxonomy of chemical compounds and detailed know how to chemically create the inorganic compound like sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride from organic materials including plants, blood, and hair.
Some Arabic Jabirian writings, such as the "Book of Mercy" and the "Book of Seventy," were later translated into Latin under the Latinized name "Geber." In the 13th century in Europe, an unidentified author began to publish alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name. This writer is often referred to as pseudo - Geber. Ab al-Rayhn al-Brn and Avicenna, two later and significant Muslim thinkers, questioned alchemical doctrines, particularly the theory of the transmutation of metals.
The old alchemical traditions were being reshaped into a scientific field by a group of chemists at Oxford under the influence of the new empirical methods advanced by Sir Francis Bacon and others. These scientists included Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke, and John Mayow. In The Sceptical Chemyst, Boyle in particular challenged numerous accepted chemical theories and advocated that chemical practitioners should be more "philosophical" and less commercially oriented.
In addition to developing Boyle's law, he rejected the traditional "four elements" and put out a mechanistic alternative based on atoms and chemical interactions that could be subjected to careful experimentation. Many significant discoveries were made in the ensuing decades, including the fact that 'air' is actually made up of a variety of gases. In 1754, the Flemish Jan Baptist van Helmont and the Scottish chemist Joseph Black discovered carbon dioxide, sometimes known as "fixed air."
In addition to discovering hydrogen and defining its characteristics, Joseph Priestley and Carl Wilhelm Scheele independently obtained pure oxygen. It wasn't until the end of the century that French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the chemical equivalent of Isaac Newton in physics, disproved Georg Ernst Stahl's idea of phlogiston, the material at the core of all combustion. By clarifying the concept of mass conservation and creating a new system of chemical nomenclature that is still in use today, Lavoisier done more than any other scientist to put the new science on a solid theoretical foundation.
John Dalton, an English physicist, developed the current theory of atoms, which states that all substances are made up of indivisible units of matter called "atoms" and that each atom has a unique atomic weight. Early in the 19th century, two scientists in particular, viz., Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Humphry Davy, developed the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations. This was made feasible by Alessandro Volta's earlier creation of the voltaic pile.
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By using electric current to separate the alkali metals from their oxides, Davy identified nine new elements, including them. William Prout, a British scientist, was the first to suggest classifying all the elements according to their atomic weights because every atom has an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. An early periodic table was created by J.A.R. Newlands, and it was later improved upon by Dmitri Mendeleev and a number of other scientists, notably Julius Lothar Meyer, separately in the 1860s.
Due to a number of extraordinary discoveries that were successful in exploring and understanding the very nature of the interior structure of atoms, the theoretical foundations of chemistry were finally comprehended at the turn of the twentieth century. The electron was discovered in 1897 by J.J. Thomson of the University of Cambridge. Shortly after, Becquerel of France and the married couple Pierre and Marie Curie looked into the phenomenon of radioactivity.
Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester carried out a number of groundbreaking scattering experiments that revealed the existence of the proton and the internal structure of the atom. He also identified and categorises various forms of radioactivity and successfully transmuted the first element by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles.
The Danish physicist Niels Bohr, the Englishman Henry Moseley, and the German Otto Hahn built on his work on atomic structure. These three men later founded the burgeoning field of nuclear chemistry and discovered nuclear fission. Scientists Linus Pauling and Gilbert N. Lewis from the United States created the electrical theory of chemical bonding and molecular orbitals. 2011 has been dubbed the "International Year of Chemistry" by the United Nations.
It was a joint project of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and it involves chemical societies, academic institutions, and organisations all over the world. Local and regional activities were organised by individuals at the local and regional levels. Justus von Liebig and others created organic chemistry in response to Friedrich Wöhler's urea synthesis.
Edward Frankland's understanding of valence bonding in 1852 and J. W. Gibbs and Svante Arrhenius's application of thermodynamics to chemistry in the 1870s were two other significant 19th century developments. Typically, chemistry is broken down into a number of different sub-disciplines. There are a number of important, cross-disciplinary and more specialised chemical fields as well.
Analytical chemistry is the study of material samples to determine their chemical structure and content. Standardised experimental techniques in chemistry are included in analytical chemistry. With the exception of strictly theoretical chemistry, these techniques are applicable to all branches of chemistry. The study of the chemicals, chemical processes, and interactions that occur in living things is known as biochemistry.
As in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry, biochemistry and organic chemistry are tightly connected. Additionally connected to genetics and molecular biology is biochemistry. The study of an inorganic compound's characteristics and reactions is known as inorganic chemistry. There is a lot of overlap between the fields of organic and inorganic chemistry, most notably in the subfield of organometallic chemistry, and the distinction between them is not always clear-cut.
The synthesis, characterisation, and comprehension of compounds with a practical function are the three pillars of materials chemistry. A brand-new topic of study for graduate students, it combines components from all traditional branches of chemistry with a focus on basic problems that are particular to materials. The chemistry of condensed phases, i.e., solids, liquids, and polymers, as well as interfaces between various phases, are important study areas.
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The study of neurochemicals, such as transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, as well as their interactions and the functions they play in the development, upkeep, and modification of the nervous system, is known as neurochemistry. The study of nuclear chemistry focuses on how subatomic particles combine to form nuclei. Nuclear chemistry includes a significant amount of modern transmutation, and the table of nuclides is a key output and resource in this area.
The study of organic molecules' structures, characteristics, compositions, processes, and reactions is known as organic chemistry. Any compound with a carbon backbone is referred to be an organic compound. The study of the physical and fundamental underpinnings of various chemical systems and processes is known as physical chemistry. Physical chemists are especially curious about the dynamics and energetics of such systems and processes.
Chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, chemical thermodynamics, and more recently astrochemistry, are important fields of research. The fields of molecular physics and physical chemistry sometimes intersect. Infinitesimal calculus is used to derive equations in physical chemistry. It frequently comes up in discussions about theoretical chemistry and quantum chemistry.
Chemical physics and physical chemistry are two separate fields, albeit there is significant overlap. The study of chemistry through basic theoretical reasoning, typically in the context of mathematics or physics, is known as theoretical chemistry. Quantum chemistry, in specifically, is the study of chemistry through the lens of quantum mechanics.
Computational chemistry, the art of creating and using computer science CS, python coding, programming to solve chemical problems—has undergone a methodical development since the end of World War II thanks to the advancement of computers. Theoretical and experimental condensed matter physics and molecular physics share a lot of ground with theoretical chemistry.
Others include polymer chemistry, radiochemistry, sonochemistry, supramolecular chemistry, synthetic chemistry, flavour chemistry, flow chemistry, immunohistochemistry, hydrogenation chemistry, mathematical chemistry, molecular mechanics, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, photochemistry, physical organic chemistry and many others.
A subatomic particle that is not made up of other particles is referred to as an elementary particle or fundamental particle in the study of particles. Electrons, fundamental fermions ( like quarks, leptons, antiquarks, and antileptons, which are typically matter particles and anti - matter particles ), and fundamental bosons ( gauge bosons and the Higgs boson ), which typically are force particles that mediate interactions among fermions, are among the particles currently thought to be elementary.
A composite particle is one that contains two or more elementary particles. Ordinary matter is made up of atoms, which were once thought to be elementary particles. The Greek word for atom is atomos, which means "unable to be cut," though up until about 1905, some of the world's top physicists believed that molecules were mathematical artefacts and that matter was ultimately made up of energy.
Early in the 1930s, the electron and proton, together with the photon, a particle of electromagnetic radiation, were discovered to be subatomic components of the atom. A single particle appeared to be able to traverse a field like a wave at that time, a paradox that is still not fully explained by quantum physics, which had just recently emerged. It was discovered through the application of quantum theory that protons and neutrons include up quarks and down quarks.
Latter are today regarded as elementary particles. Additionally, the electron's three degrees of freedom, the charge, spin, and orbital, can split into three quasiparticles, viz., holon, spinon, and orbiton, via the wave function within a molecule. However, a free electron, which lacks orbital motion since it is not orbiting an atomic nucleus, seems un - splittable and is nonetheless recognised as an elementary particle.
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Around 1980, a more pragmatic perspective, expressed in particle physics' Standard Model, known as science's most experimentally successful theory, replaced the notion that an elementary particle is in fact an elementary particle and an ultimate constituent of substance. Many extensions of the Standard Model and ideas beyond it, like supersymmetry, double the number of elementary particles by speculating that each known particle has a "shadow" partner that is far more massive than it, albeit no such super - partners have yet been found.
The graviton, a basic boson that mediates gravitation, is still an improbable concept. Either fermions or bosons make up all elementary particles. The quantum statistics that fermions and bosons follow are Fermi - Dirac and Bose - Einstein, respectively, that distinguish these classes. The spin - statistics theorem allows for the differentiation of their spin, which is half - integer for fermions and integer for bosons.
For prediction purposes, elementary particles in the Standard Model are represented as point particles. The Standard Model, despite being quite successful, is constrained by the absence of gravitation and has several parameters that were introduced haphazardly but without some explanation. Current big bang nucleosynthesis models predict that the primordial observable matter of the universe should be composed of roughly 75% hydrogen and 25% helium-4 ( in mass ).
Protons consist of two up and one down quarks, whereas neutrons are made up of one up and two down quarks. We can disregard the mass contribution of the other common fundamental particles, such as electrons, neutrinos, or weak bosons, to the total mass of the observable cosmos because they are so light or uncommon in comparison to atomic nuclei. So it follows that the majority of the universe's observable mass is made up of protons and neutrons, which, like other baryons, are made up of up quarks and down quarks.
According to some calculations, the observable universe contains about 1080 baryons, which are virtually exclusively protons and neutrons. The Eddington number is the total number of protons in the universe as it is now understood. According to some estimations, neutrinos, which make up the bulk of the approximately 1086 fundamental particles of matter that exist in the visible universe, account for nearly all the matter, excluding dark matter.
Other calculations suggest that, excluding dark matter, there are around 1097 fundamental particles in the observable universe, principally photons and other massless force carriers. The Higgs boson, which was reported to have been likely detected by the two main experiments at the Large Hadron Collider, the ATLAS and CMS, on July 4, 2012, is one of the elementary bosons that mediate the forces. It is one of the 12 varieties of elementary fermions along with their corresponding antiparticles.
However, since it is unknown if the Standard Model is compatible with Einstein's general relativity, it is commonly regarded as a tentative theory, rather than a truly basic one. There might be fictitious elementary particles that are not included in the Standard Model, such as the graviton, which would be the carrier of gravity, and sparticles, which are supersymmetric partners of regular particles.
Each of the three generations of the 12 fundamental fermions has four particles. The neutrinos, the only elementary fermions with neither electric nor colour charge, make up the other three leptons. Of the six elementary fermions, three of them, the electron, the muon, and the tau, have electric charges of one. Quarks make up the remaining six particles.
The quantum chromodynamics version that is employed to explain quark interactions affects estimates of the values of quark masses. Values for quark masses cannot be directly determined since quarks are always enclosed in a gluon envelope that gives the mesons and baryons where quarks occur a significantly larger mass. Small variations in the calculation result in substantial variations in the masses since their masses are so small in comparison to the effective mass of the surrounding gluons.
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Along with these 12 fundamental fermionic particles, there are 12 fundamental fermionic antiparticles. For instance, the electron's antiparticle, the antielectron, the positron, has an electric charge of +1. The absence of isolated quarks and antiquarks can be explained by confinement. Each quark carries one of the strong interaction's three colour charges, while antiquarks do the same. Similar to how charged particles interact with one another via photon exchange, color - charged particles interact via gluon exchange.
But because gluons have their own colour charges, when color - charged particles are separated, the strong force is amplified. Color - charged particles experience a growing force, as opposed to the electromagnetic force, which decreases as charged particles disperse. However, color - charged particles may combine to create hadrons, which are color - neutral composite particles. A quark and an antiquark can team up because each has an anticolor that corresponds to its colour.
The anticolor and colour cancel each other out to create a color - neutral meson. As an alternative, three quarks, one of which is "red," another "blue," and a third "green" can coexist. Together, these three coloured quarks create a colourless baryon. A color - neutral antibaryon can be created symmetrically by three antiquarks of the colours, viz, "antired," "antiblue," and "antigreen." Although hadrons, whose electric charges are all integral, contain quarks, which also carry fractional electric charges, fractional charges have never been isolated.
Deep inelastic scattering, which involves shooting electrons at nuclei to map the distribution of charge within nucleons, which are baryons, provides proof that quarks exist. If the charge is constant, the proton's electric field will also be constant, and the electron will scatter elastically. This is how low-energy electrons scatter, however at a certain energy, protons deflect some electrons at enormous angles. An energetic jet of particles is released as the electron recoils with much less energy.
This inelastic scattering shows that the proton's charge is distributed among smaller charged particles called quarks rather than being uniform. In the Standard Model, the Higgs boson with spin - 0, which mediates forces, accounts for the intrinsic mass of particles, while vector with spin - 1 bosons, including gluons, photons, and the W and Z bosons, mediate forces. The Pauli exclusion principle allows many bosons to share a quantum state, which distinguishes bosons from fermions.
Bosons can also be either combinational particles like mesons or fundamental particles like photons. Boson spin is an integer rather than a half-integer. Strong interaction, which unites quarks to create either baryons - the three quarks or mesons - one quark and one antiquark, is mediated by gluons. The atomic nucleus is made up of baryons, which are made up of protons and neutrons. Like quarks, gluons exhibit colour and anticolor, which are not related to the idea of visual colour, but rather the strong interactions between the particles.
There are eight different types of gluons in all. W+, W, and Z0 are the three weak gauge bosons. The weak interaction is mediated by them. The W bosons are well known for playing a role in nuclear deterioration. A neutron is transformed into a proton by the W, which then decays into an electron and an electron-antineutrino pair. Instead of changing particle flavour or charges, the Z0 alters momentum.
It is the sole method for scattering neutrinos in an elastic manner. The momentum change in electrons caused by neutrino - Z exchange led to the discovery of the weak gauge bosons. The electromagnetic interaction is mediated by the massless photon. The electroweak interaction between elementary particles is made up of these four gauge bosons.
Although to us the weak and electromagnetic forces seem very distinct at low energy, it is believed that at high energies the two forces combine to form the electroweak force. Measurements of the cross-sections for high-energy electron-proton scattering at the DESY HERA collider amply supported this hypothesis. The high masses of the W and Z bosons, which are a result of the Higgs process in turn, are the cause of the disparities at low energies.
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The Higgs chooses a specific route in electroweak space by the process of spontaneous symmetry breaking, causing three electroweak particles to become extremely heavy, the weak bosons, and one to stay with an unspecified rest mass since it is always in motion, the photon. The Higgs boson was declared to have been seen at CERN's Large Hadron Collider on July 4, 2012, following several years of experimentally looking for proof of its existence.
At the announcement was Peter Higgs, who initially proposed the existence of the Higgs boson. It is estimated that the Higgs boson weighs about 125 GeV. This discovery's statistical significance was given as 5 sigma, which corresponds to a 99.99994% confidence level. This is the level of significance needed in particle physics to formally classify experimental results as a discovery. The characteristics of the recently found particle are still being studied.
A hypothetical primary spin-2 particle called the graviton has been hypothesised to mediate gravitation. It is occasionally listed in tables of elementary particles, but it hasn't been found because of how hard it is to detect. The typical graviton has no mass, while there are models with enormous Kaluza-Klein gravitons. Even though the Standard Model's predictions are overwhelmingly supported by experimental data, certain of its parameters, such as the hierarchy problem, were added at random.
They are therefore still a mystery. These flaws are addressed by theories other than the Standard Model. One Standard Model extension seeks to unify the strong interaction and electroweak interaction into a single "grand unified theory" ( GUT ). A mechanism akin to the Higgs would cause such a force to spontaneously split into the three forces. It is thought that this breakdown happens at high energies, which makes it challenging to witness unification in a laboratory.
The presence of X and Y bosons, which induce proton decay, is the most dramatic prediction of the grand unification theory. By introducing even another class of symmetries to the Lagrangian, supersymmetry expands the Standard Model. These symmetries swap fermionic for bosonic particles. Supersymmetric particles, also known as sparticles and consisting of sleptons, squarks, neutralinos, and charginos, are predicted to exist via such symmetry.
According to the Standard Model, every particle would have a superpartner with a spin that is half that of the primary particle. The sparticles are substantially heavier than their regular counterparts as a result of the breaking of supersymmetry; current particle colliders would not be able to produce them due to their weight. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN, according to some researchers, will be able to find signs of spherical particles.
According to the main version of the theory, M-theory, all "particles" that make up matter are made of strings with a length of one Planck length, and they live in an 11- or 12-dimensional ( according to F - theory ) cosmos. Mass, electric charge, colour charge, and spin are all determined by the various frequencies at which these strings vibrate. A "string" might be open like a line or closed in a loop, like a circle, a one-dimensional sphere. A phenomenon known as a world sheet is swept out as a string travels across space.
Using the uncertainty principle, string theory predicts 1- to 10-branes. A 1-brane is a string and a 10-brane is a 10-dimensional object, which prevent tears in the "fabric" of space. For example, the electron orbiting a hydrogen atom has the possibility, albeit, a small one, that it could be anywhere else in the universe at any given time. According to string theory, the three space dimensions and one temporal dimension we can observe are contained within a single 4-brane.
The remaining 7 hypothetical dimensions either do not or cannot exist in our universe. This is because they exist in a larger framework known as the "multiverse" outside our known universe. Or, they are extremely little and curled up and hence not macroscopically accessible. According to some predictions of the string theory, there could be enormously large counterparts of common particles caused by vibrational excitations of the fundamental string. There could be a massless spin-2 particle that functions similarly to a graviton.
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By adding a new QCD-like interaction, Technicolour theories attempt to minimally alter the Standard Model. This implies adding a new theory of so-called Techniquarks and Technigluons interacting. The main contention is that these particles exist in bound states, and that the Higgs boson is not one of them. There are one or more orders of particles that are more fundamental than those or most of those identified in the Standard Model, according to preon theory.
Preons, which is derived from "pre-quarks," are typically referred to as the most fundamental of these. Preon theory essentially seeks to do for the Standard Model, what the Standard Model accomplished for the particle zoo that came before it. The majority of theories assume that practically all of the predictions of the Standard Model can be translated into three to six additional fundamental particles and the laws governing their interactions. Since the simplest models were experimentally excluded from preons in the 1980s, interest in preons has decreased.
The hypothetical subatomic particles known as "accelerons" are intrinsically linked to the dark energy that is theorised to be speeding up the universe's expansion in order to explain the neutrino's newly discovered mass. According to this idea, the interactions between neutrinos and accelerons result in a brand-new force that influences neutrinos and causes dark energy. As the universe strives to draw neutrinos apart, dark energy is created.
Compared to neutrinos, accelerators are thought to interact with matter less frequently.
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