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Chemistry ( Organic Chemistry & Inorganic Chemistry ) - A Preliminary Review :

Chemistry, including organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry and other sub-branches, is one of the critical disciplines of modern day physical sciences. Since time immemorial, Chemistry has been applied and leveraged extensively in various ways. All the applications of Chemistry have been for the development and upliftment of our human centric social systems, as well as the corresponding sociological consequences.

 

Right from ancient days to modern times, Organic Chemistry and Inorganic Chemistry have played indispensable roles in varied functions. Latter include war - fares, utilities' developments ( enhancements & demolitions ) , domestic applications, outer space explorations and an ocean of multitude application scopes.

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Chemistry has been omnipresent in almost all industrial domains. Rare elements, metals, non - metals, compounds, mixtures, colloids, liquids, metallurgy have been quite pivotal to the existence and evolution of human race. We owe a lot to the science of Chemistry and look forward to further innovations in the near future.​ The scientific study of matter's characteristics and behaviour is known as chemistry.

 

Chemistry is a branch of physical sciences that studies the components of matter, including atoms, molecules, and ions, as well as the compounds they form. It also includes the changes they go through when reacting with other substances, as well as their composition, structure, qualities, and behaviour. The nature of chemical bonds in chemical compounds is another topic covered in chemistry.

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Chemistry sits in between the critical physical sciences and biological sciences' disciplines. Latter pertain to subjects of physics and biology described reasonably in terms of the extent of its topic. It is frequently referred to as the primary science since it establishes a fundamental framework for comprehending both basic and applied scientific disciplines. 

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For instance, aspects of plant growth in botany, the formation of igneous rocks in geology, the formation of atmospheric ozone and the degradation of environmental pollutants in ecology, the characteristics of the soil on the moon in cosmochemistry, the action of drugs in pharmacology, and the gathering of DNA evidence at crime scenes in forensics are all explained by chemistry.

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Alchemy, a term used to describe a prior set of practises that combined aspects of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, physics, Biology, Biotechnology, mysticism, Pharmacy and medicine, underwent a change during the Renaissance, giving rise to the modern word "chemistry." Even while the pursuit of turning lead or other base metals into gold is frequently linked with alchemy, alchemists were also intrigued by many of the issues raised by contemporary chemistry.

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The Arabic word al - kīmīā is also the source of the English word alchemy. Since al - kīmīā is a derivative of the Ancient Greek word, it may have Egyptian origins. The latter is derived from the word Kemet, which is the Egyptian language's historical name for Egypt. Alternately, al - kīmīā might be a translation of a Greek term that means "cast together."

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The quantum mechanical approach is currently used to explain atomic structure. The study of fundamental constituents such as atoms, molecules, substances, metals, crystals, and other aggregates of matter is where traditional chemistry begins. It is possible to study matter in its solid, liquid, gaseous, and plasma phases alone or in combination. Chemistry studies interactions, reactions, and transformations that are typically the outcome of atom - to - atom interactions that re - organise the chemical bonds that keep atoms together.

 

A chemistry lab is used to study these behaviours. Different types of laboratory glassware are frequently used in chemistry labs. Glassware, however, is not essential to chemistry and is not used in a significant amount of experimental, applied, and industrial chemistry. A chemical reaction is the change of one or more chemicals into another. Rearranging electrons in chemical bonds between atoms forms the basis of such a chemical reaction.

 

Chemical equations, which frequently use atoms as subjects, can be used to symbolically represent it. In the equation for a chemical reaction, there are an equal amount of atoms on the left and right. A nuclear reaction or radioactive decay is the name for the transition when there are not an equal amount of atoms on either side. Chemical laws are a set of fundamental guidelines that govern the kind of chemical reactions that a substance can have as well as any accompanying energy changes.

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In nearly all chemical investigations, energy and entropy issues are crucial. Chemical substances are categorised according to their chemical compositions, phases, and structural characteristics. Chemical analysis tools, such as spectroscopy and chromatography, can be used to examine them. Chemists are scientists who conduct chemical research. The majority of chemists focus on one or more subfields. The study of chemistry requires a number of concepts, some of which are fundamental.

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Chemistry defines matter as anything composed of particles that has rest mass, volume, and occupies space. Although some particles, like the photon, do not have rest mass, the particles that make up matter have. A mixture of things or a pure chemical compound can both be considered matter. The simplest unit in chemistry is the atom. It is made up of an electron cloud surrounding a dense core known as the atomic nucleus.

 

The electron cloud is made up of negatively charged electrons that orbit the nucleus, whereas the nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons together referred to as nucleons. The protons' positive charge and the negatively charged electrons' balance each other out in a neutral atom. The mass of a nucleon is around 1,836 times that of an electron, and the nucleus is extremely dense. However, an atom's radius is 10,000 times greater than its nucleus.

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The atom is also the smallest unit that can be envisioned to preserve the chemical characteristics of the element, such as electronegativity, ionisation potential, preferred oxidation state(s), coordination numbers, and preferred types of bonds to form, such as metallic, ionic, and covalent. A chemical element is a pure material made up of only one type of atom, which is distinguished by the atomic number, which is denoted by the letter Z, and the specific number of protons present in each of its atoms' nuclei.

 

The total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus is the mass number. Although every atom in a given element will have the same atomic number, not every atom in that element will necessarily have the same mass number; such atoms are referred to as isotopes. For instance, all atoms of the chemical element carbon contain 6 protons in their nucleus, however carbon atoms can also have mass numbers of 12 or 13.

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The periodic table, which arranges elements by atomic number, serves as the typical display of the chemical elements. Groups are arranged as columns and Periods as rows in the periodic table. When spotting periodic tendencies, the periodic table is helpful. A pure chemical substance made up of multiple elements is called a compound. A compound's characteristics differ significantly from those of its constituent parts.

 

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) establishes the norms for compound naming. According to the organic naming system, organic substances are named. According to the inorganic nomenclature system, names for inorganic substances are developed. The electropositive and electronegative components are separated into two classes when a compound comprises more than one component.

 

Additionally, a system to index chemical substances has been developed by the Chemical Abstracts Service. Each chemical compound is identified in this system by a number known as its CAS registration number. The tiniest, indivisible unit of a pure chemical substance, a molecule has its own distinct set of chemical properties and the capacity to interact chemically with other molecules in a variety of ways.

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This concept, however, only applies to substances made up of molecules, which is not the case for many substances. The majority of the time, molecules are made up of a collection of atoms that are joined by covalent bonds, making the structure electrically neutral and ensuring that all of the valence electrons are in pairs with other electrons, either in bonds or lone pairs. As a result, unlike ions, molecules are electrically neutral entities.

 

The result is frequently referred to as a molecular ion or a polyatomic ion when this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge. However, because molecular ions must typically exist in well-separated forms, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a mass spectrometer, due to the discrete and separate nature of the molecular notion. Common sulphate or nitrate ions are two examples of charged polyatomic groupings that are found in solids but aren't typically thought of as "molecules" in chemistry.

 

Radicals are created when certain compounds have one or more unpaired electrons. While the majority of radicals are rather reactive, others, like nitric oxide ( NO ), can remain stable.

 

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The "inert" or noble gas elements such as helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon have a single atom as their smallest discrete unit, whereas the other isolated chemical elements are made up of either molecules or networks of atoms that are chemically connected to one another. Unfamiliar things like water, air, and a variety of organic compounds including alcohol, sugar, petrol, and other medications are all made up of recognisable molecules.

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The majority of the solid materials that make up the Earth's solid crust, mantle, and core are chemical compounds lacking discrete molecules, proving that not all substances or chemical compounds are made up of discrete molecules. These other forms of things, such ionic compounds and network solids, are structured in such a way that recognisable molecules as such do not exist. As the smallest repeating structure within the material, formula units or unit cells are used instead to discuss these chemicals.

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Mineral salts like table salt, solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and well-known silica and silicate minerals like quartz and granite are a few examples of these things. The geometry, often known as a molecule's structure, is one of its primary properties. While the structures of diatomic, triatomic, and tetraatomic molecules may be unimportant, linear, angular pyramidal, etc., the structures of polyatomic molecules, which are made up of more than six atoms of different elements, can be important to the chemical nature of the molecule.

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The term "chemical substance" refers to a class of matter with a certain composition and set of characteristics. A mixture is a group of different components. Air and alloys are two examples of mixes. The mole is a unit of measurement that represents a quantity of a substance, often known as a chemical quantity. One mole is defined as containing precisely 6.022140761023 particles, such as atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons; this quantity is referred to as the Avogadro constant. 

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The amount of a certain substance per volume of solution is known as molar concentration and is often expressed in mol/dm3. Chemicals can exist in a variety of phases in addition to the distinct chemical characteristics that set them apart. However, some more unusual phases are incompatible with specific chemical properties. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications.

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A phase is a collection of chemical system states that, under a variety of pressure or temperature conditions, exhibit similar bulk structural features.

Density and refractive index are two examples of physical characteristics that typically lie within phase-specific ranges. The phase transition, which occurs when energy is introduced into or removed from the system in order to rearrange the system's structure rather than alter the bulk conditions, determines the phase of matter.

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In other cases, the phase boundary might be continuous rather than discrete, and in these circumstances, the matter is said to be in a supercritical state. A triple point is created when three states coincide based on the conditions, and since it is invariant, it is an easy approach to specify a group of requirements. Solid, liquid, and gas phases are the most well-known types of phases.

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A lot of chemicals have different solid phases. For instance, the three solid iron phases of alpha, gamma and delta change. Latter strongly depend  upon the quantification of various focal physical quantities, like temperature and pressure. The arrangement of the atoms in the crystal structure, or crystal structure, is a key distinction between the various solid phases. 

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Plasmas, Bose-Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials are examples of less well-known phases. The most well - known phases deal with three - dimensional systems, but two-dimensional systems can also have analogues that can be defined, which has drawn interest because it is relevant to biological systems.

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Atoms that form molecules or crystals together are said to be connected to one another. A chemical bond can be pictured as a multipole equilibrium between the negative charges that oscillate around the nuclei and the positive charges that are inside of them. The energies and distributions describe how readily an electron is available to bind to another atom, going beyond simple attraction and repulsion.

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Chemical bonds can form due of the Van der Waals force, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, or covalent bonds. These relationships all have different potentials associated with them. These interactions are produced by these potentials and keep atoms bound in molecules or crystals. Molecule structure and composition can be explained by valence bond theory, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model ( VSEPR ), and the idea of oxidation number in many basic compounds.

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A metal loses one or more of its electrons to become a positively charged cation, and the non-metal atom subsequently gains the electrons to become a negatively charged anion. This process creates an ionic bond. The electrostatic force of attraction between the two oppositely charged ions is caused by their ionic connection. For instance, chlorine ( Cl ), a non - metal, receives this electron to become Cl while sodium ( Na ), a metal, loses one electron to form a Na+ cation. 

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Electrostatic attraction holds the ions together, resulting in the formation of sodium chloride ( NaCl ), or regular table salt. An electrically neutral group of connected atoms is known as a molecule when one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms in a covalent bond. As a result of valence electron sharing, each atom will have eight electrons in its outermost shell, forming the electron configuration of a noble gas.

 

The term "octet rule" refers to the tendency of atoms to join in a fashion that results in each atom having eight electrons in its valence shell. To achieve this stable arrangement, some elements, like lithium and hydrogen, only require two electrons in their outermost shell. According to the duet rule, these atoms are approaching the helium electron configuration, which has two electrons in its outer shell, and are thus said to be following this rule. 

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Many ionic structures can also be predicted using concepts from classical physics. Valence bond theory is less useful for more complex compounds, such as metal complexes, and alternate methods, like the molecular orbital theory, are typically used. Chemistry defines energy as a property of a substance resulting from its atomic, molecular, or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is always accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, the energy of the substances involved is either increased or decreased.

 

Heat or light are two ways that energy is transported from the environment to the reaction's reactants.  Therefore, the energy of a reaction's products may be greater or lower than that of its reactants. Exergonic reactions are those in which the final state has a lower energy value than the initial state. Endergonic reactions have the opposite property. 

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Chemistry defines energy as a property of a substance resulting from its atomic, molecular, or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is always accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, the energy of the substances involved is either increased or decreased. Heat or light are two ways that energy is transported from the environment to the reaction's reactants. Therefore, the energy of a reaction's products may be greater or lower than that of its reactants.

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Exergonic reactions are those in which the final state has a lower energy value than the initial state. Endergonic reactions have the opposite property.  

If a reaction emits heat into its surroundings, it is said to be exothermic. Endothermic reactions take heat from their environment as they go. Without the reactants overcoming an energy barrier known as the activation energy, chemical reactions are always impossible.

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The Boltzmann's population factor, which is the likelihood that a molecule will have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T, relates the rate of a chemical reaction to the activation energy E at a certain temperature T. The Arrhenius equation describes this exponential relationship between a reaction rate and temperature. 

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Heat, light, electricity, or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound can all serve as the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to take place. An associated idea In chemical thermodynamics, free energy, which also takes into account entropy considerations, is a highly helpful tool for forecasting the viability of a process and figuring out the equilibrium state of a chemical reaction. Only when the overall change in the Gibbs free energy is negative is a reaction possible. For electrons, atoms, and molecules, there are only a finite number of potential energy states. 

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Outline of Chemistry ( Organic Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry ) Syllabus for Class 12 ( XII - 12th ) - Part 1 :
The Solid State :

General Characteristics of Solid State,

Amorphous and Crystalline Solids,

Classification of Crystalline Solids,

Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells,

Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell,

Close Packed Structures,

Packing Efficiency,

Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions,

Imperfections in Solids,

Electrical Properties,

Magnetic Properties  

 

Solutions :

Types of Solutions,

Expressing Concentration of Solutions,  

Solubility,

Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions,

Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions,

Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass,

Abnormal Molar Masses  

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Electrochemistry :

Electrochemical Cells,

Galvanic Cells,

Nernst Equation,

Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions,

Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis,

Batteries,

Fuel Cells,

Corrosion,

Chemical Kinetics,

Rate of a Chemical Reaction,

Factors Influencing Rate of a Reaction,

Integrated Rate Equations,

Temperature Dependence of the Rate of a Reaction,

Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions 

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Surface Chemistry :

Adsorption,

Catalysis,

Colloids,

Classification of Colloids,

Emulsions,

Colloids Around Us 

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General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements :

Occurrence of Metals,

Concentration of Ores,

Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore,

Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy,

Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy,

Oxidation Reduction,

Refining,

Uses of Aluminium,

Copper,

Zinc and Iron

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The p-Block Elements :

Group 15 Elements,

Dinitrogen,

Ammonia,

Oxides of Nitrogen,

Nitric Acid,

Phosphorus – Allotropic Forms,

Phosphine,  

Phosphorus Halides,

Oxoacids of Phosphorus,

Group 16 Elements,

Dioxygen,

Simple Oxides,

Ozone,

Sulphur – Allotropic Forms,

Sulphur Dioxide,

Oxoacids of Sulphur,

Sulphuric Acid,

Group 17 Elements,

Chlorine,

Hydrogen Chloride,

Oxoacids of Halogens,

Interhalogen Compounds,

Group 18 Elements );

 

The d-and f-Block Elements :

Position in the Periodic Table,

Electronic Configurations of the d-Block Elements,

General Properties of the Transition Elements (d-Block),

Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements,

The Lanthanoids,

The Actinoids,

Some Applications of d- and f-Block Elements );

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Coordination Compounds :

Werner's Theory of Coordination Compounds,

Definitions of Some Important Terms Pertaining to Coordination Compounds,

Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds,

Isomerism in Coordination Compounds,

Bonding in Coordination Compounds,

Bonding in Metal Carbonyls,

Importance and Applications of Coordination,

Compounds

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They are established by the laws of quantum mechanics, which call for quantization of the energy in a bound system. Excited molecules/atoms are those with a higher energy state. The molecules and atoms of a substance are frequently far more reactive and therefore more prone to chemical reactions when they are in an excited energy state. An object's energy and the energy of its environment are always what determine the substance's phase.

 

Water ( H2O ), a liquid at room temperature because the molecules are connected by hydrogen bonds, is an example of a substance whose intermolecular interactions are such that they cannot be overcome by the energy of the environment. This occurs in a more ordered phase like a liquid or solid. At normal temperature and standard pressure, hydrogen sulphide ( H2S ) is a solid because the molecules are held together by weaker dipole-dipole interactions.

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The magnitude of the energy quanta emitted from one chemical entity determines how much energy is transferred to another. However, since phonons, which are responsible for a substance's vibrational and rotational energy levels, have far less energy than photons, which are used for the electronic energy transfer, heat energy is frequently transferred from one substance to another more readily. Heat is therefore more easily transported between material compared to light or other kinds of electrical energy.

 

This is because vibrational and rotational energy levels are closer together than electronic energy levels. For instance, thermal or electrical energy can be transferred from one substance to another more effectively than UV electromagnetic radiation. The examination of spectral lines can be used to identify distinct chemical compounds by using their characteristic energy levels. Chemical spectroscopy frequently makes use of many spectra, such as IR, microwave, NMR, ESR, etc.

 

By examining the radiation spectra of far - off objects, such as stars and distant galaxies, spectroscopy can also be used to determine the composition of those objects. Chemical energy is a word that is frequently used to describe a substance's capacity to change through a chemical reaction or to change other chemicals. A chemical reaction is defined as the transformation of a chemical substance as a result of its interaction with another material or with energy.

 

As a result, the term "chemical reaction" refers to the "reaction" that occurs when one substance comes into contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution or is exposed to energy or both. The reaction's components and the system environment, which may consist of specified vessels, often laboratory glassware, exchange some energy as a result. The production or dissociation of molecules is the splitting of a single molecule into two or more molecules is one of the possible outcomes of chemical reactions.

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Another possible outcome of chemical reactions could be the rearranging of atoms within or between molecules. Similarly, Chemistry is full of various means and approaches that pertain to various possible outcomes of chemical reactions. Chemical bonds are frequently formed or broken during chemical processes. Common chemical reactions include oxidation, reduction, dissociation, neutralisation of acids and bases, and molecular rearrangement.

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A chemical equation can be used to symbolically represent a chemical reaction. While the number and type of atoms on either side of the equation are equal in a non-nuclear chemical reaction, this is only true for protons and neutrons in a nuclear reaction. The mechanism of a chemical reaction refers to the stages that may result in the reorganisation of chemical bonds during the process. It is possible to imagine that a chemical reaction occurs in a number of steps, each of which may proceed at a different rate. 

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Thus, numerous reaction intermediates with varying stabilities might be anticipated throughout a process. To explain a reaction's kinetics and relative product mix, reaction mechanisms are put forth. Numerous physical chemists focus on investigating and putting forth the mechanics of diverse chemical processes. When suggesting a mechanism for a chemical reaction, certain empirical rules, such as the Woodward - Hoffmann rules, are frequently useful. 

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IUPAC's gold book defines a chemical reaction as "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species." Accordingly, a chemical reaction might be simple or complex in nature. This concept is further qualified by the fact that it takes experimentally observable interconversion of conformers into account. This definition states that such visible chemical reactions typically include sets of molecular entities. 

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However, it is frequently conceptually convenient to refer to changes involving a single molecular entity as a microscopic chemical event. A charged species known as an ion is an atom or molecule that has either received or lost one or more electrons. When an atom loses one electron, it becomes a positively charged ion or cation because it now has more protons than electrons.

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An atom becomes a negatively charged ion or anion when it picks up an electron, leaving it with more electrons than protons. In the case of sodium chloride, or NaCl, the Na+ and Cl- ions combine to produce a crystalline lattice of neutral salts. Hydroxide ( OH - ) and phosphate ( PO4 3- ) are two examples of polyatomic ions that do not break apart during acid-base interactions. Plasma is made up of gaseous material that has undergone complete ionisation, typically at a high temperature.

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Frequently, a chemical can be categorised as either an acid or a basic. There are numerous ideas that account for acid-base behaviour. The Arrhenius theory, which maintains that an acid is something that, when dissolved in water, emits hydronium ions, and a base is something that, when dissolved in water, emits hydroxide ions, is the most basic. According to the Bronsted-Lowry acid-base theory, bases are the chemicals that accept a positive hydrogen ion that an acid donates to another material during a chemical reaction.

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The Lewis acid-base hypothesis, which is based on the synthesis of new chemical bonds, is a third prevalent theory. According to Lewis' hypothesis, an acid is a chemical that can take a pair of electrons from a base to establish a new bond, whereas a base is a substance that can give a pair of electrons to form a new bond. The history of this idea shows that there are numerous additional methods to classify a substance as an acid or a base. There are two typical ways to gauge acid strength.

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Based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, one measurement is pH, which measures the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution on a negative logarithmic scale. As a result, low pH solutions have a lot of hydronium ions and are therefore considered to be more acidic. The second measurement, based on the Bronsted - Lowry definition, is the acid dissociation constant ( Ka ), which gauges a substance's resemblance to an acid in terms of how it behaves.

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That is, compounds with higher Ka values are more likely than those with lower Ka values to donate hydrogen ions during chemical processes. All chemical processes that modify the oxidation state of atoms by either gaining electrons or reduction or losing electrons or oxidation are referred to as redox or reduction - oxidation reactions. Oxidising agents, oxidants, or oxidizers are terms used to describe chemicals that have the capacity to oxidise other substances.

 

An oxidant depletes another material of its electrons. Reducing agents, reductants, or reducers are terms used to describe chemicals that have the capacity to reduce other substances. A reductant becomes oxidised when it donates electrons to another material. Additionally, it is referred to as an electron donor since it "donates" electrons. The term "oxidation" or "reduction" actually refers to a change in the oxidation number; an actual electron transfer may never take place. 

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As a result, it is best to describe oxidation as an increase in oxidation number and reduction as a drop in oxidation number. Although the term "equilibrium" is used frequently throughout the sciences, it is particularly relevant to chemistry whenever it is possible for a substance to exist in more than one type of phase or in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can interact with one another. Even if its composition is constant, a system of chemical compounds in equilibrium is frequently not static.

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Nevertheless, the molecules of the substances continue to interact, leading to a dynamic equilibrium. Thus, the idea refers to a situation where variables like chemical composition remain constant across time. Certain laws, which are now fundamental ideas in chemistry, control chemical reactions. Among them are The Avogadro law, Law of Beer - Lambert, Boyle's law (1662), which links volume and pressure, Volume and temperature are related by Charles' law ( 1787 ), The diffusion laws of Fick, The law of Gay - Lussac ( 1809 ) linking pressure and temperature, The principle of Le Chatelier, Henry's law, Hess's law and more.

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Outline of Chemistry ( Organic Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry ) Syllabus for Class 12 ( XII - 12th ) - Part 2 :
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes :

Classification,

Nomenclature,

Nature of C–X Bond,

Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes,

Preparation of Haloarenes,

Physical Properties,

Chemical Reactions,

Polyhalogen Compounds );

 

Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers :

Classification,

Nomenclature,

Structures of Functional Groups,

Alcohols and Phenols,

Some Commercially Important Alcohols,

Ethers );

 

Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids :

Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group,

Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones,

Physical Properties,

Chemical Reactions,

Uses of Aldehydes,

Nomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group,

Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids,

Physical Properties,

Chemical Reactions,

Uses of Carboxylic Acids );

 

Amines :

Structure of Amines,

Classification,

Nomenclature,

Preparation of Amines,

Physical Properties,

Chemical Reactions,

Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts,

Physical Properties,

Chemical Reactions,

Importance of Diazonium Salts in Synthesis of Aromatic Compounds );

 

Biomolecules :

Carbohydrates,

Proteins,

Enzymes,

Vitamins,

Nucleic Acids,

Hormones );

 

Polymers :

Classification of Polymers,

Types of Polymerisation Reactions,

Molecular Mass of Polymers,

Biodegradable Polymers,

Polymers of Commercial Importance );

 

Chemistry in Everyday Life :

Drugs and their Classification,

Drug-Target Interaction,

Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs,

Chemicals in Food,

Cleansing Agents 

The principles of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics are all derived from the law of conservation of energy. Even in contemporary physics, the law of conservation of mass holds true in isolated systems. When non - material "energy" such as heat, light, or kinetic energy is taken out from a non - isolated system, special relativity demonstrates that some mass will also be lost as a result of mass - energy equivalence.

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High energy losses cause measurable mass losses, which is a crucial problem in nuclear chemistry. Law of definite composition, despite the fact that in many systems, most notably biomacromolecules and minerals, the ratios typically take the form of fractions and frequently call for huge numbers.
Other prominent laws in Chemistry worth ruminating are the Multiple Proportions Law and the Raoult's law.

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The development of chemistry has a long history that dates back to the beginning of time. Civilizations have been using the techniques that would later serve as the foundation for the many fields of chemistry since several millennia BC. Examples include the extraction of metals from ores, the production of pottery and glazes, the fermentation of beer and wine, the extraction of compounds from plants for use in medicine and perfume, the conversion of fat into soap, the production of glass, and the production of alloys such as bronze and many other varied applications.

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Alchemy, which used a non-scientific method to comprehend the components of matter and their interactions, came before chemistry. Alchemists performed experiments and recorded the results, setting the scene for modern chemistry even though they were unable to understand the nature of matter and its transformations. 

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In his book The Sceptical Chymist in 1661, Robert Boyle who was sceptical of the elements but convinced in alchemy played a significant role in elevating the "sacred art" as a distinct, important, and philosophical profession. While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with substance and its changes, the scientific approach that chemists used in their work provided the essential distinction.

 

With the work of Antoine Lavoisier, who created a law of conservation of mass that required precise measurement and quantitative measurements of chemical events, chemistry as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy became a recognised science. The history of thermodynamics and subsequent chemistry are interwoven, particularly because of Willard Gibbs' contributions.

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As new findings and hypotheses increase the use of the science, the concept of chemistry has evolved over time. According to renowned scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, the term "chymistry" referred to the study of the physical laws or physics governing mixed bodies. Christopher Glaser, a chemist, defined "chymistry" as a scientific art form in 1663. It taught people how to dissolve bodies, extract many substances that made up those bodies, unite those substances once again, and elevate those substances to higher perfection.

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Georg Ernst Stahl defined "chemistry" in 1730 as the science of dissolving mixed, compound, or aggregate substances into their fundamental components and creating such entities from those components. Jean - Baptiste Dumas used the term "chemistry" to describe the branch of science that studied the rules and effects of molecular forces in 1837. This definition continued to alter until, in 1947, Linus Pauling accepted it to imply the science of substances, their structure, their qualities, and the reactions that transform them into other substances.

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In 1998, Professor Raymond Chang expanded the concept of "chemistry" to include the study of matter and the transformations that it goes through. 

Early civilizations including the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Indians gathered practical knowledge about the arts of metalworking, pottery, and dyeing but didn't create a formal theory. Aristotle's idea of the four elements, which stated unequivocally that fire, air, earth, and water were the primary ingredients from which everything is made as a mixture, is credited with establishing the first basic chemical hypothesis in Classical Greece.

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Greek atomism first appeared in writings by philosophers like Democritus and Epicurus in 440 BC. The Roman philosopher Lucretius developed the idea in his work De rerum natura or On the Nature of Things, which was published in 50 BCE. Greek atomism was solely philosophical in origin, unlike contemporary ideas of science, and it paid little attention to empirical observations or chemical experiments.

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In ancient Greek philosophy, the idea that "Nothing comes from nothing" may be found in Empedocles about the 4th century BC, is an early example of the concept of mass conservation. "Because nothing can be created from nothing, and nothing can be brought about to completely destroy what is," the author writes. The author Epicurus stated that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be" in his description of the nature of the universe in the third century BC.

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The practise of alchemy initially spread throughout the Hellenistic world. Alchemy manifested mixing occultism and magic into the study of natural ingredients. The ultimate objective was that of transforming materials into gold and finding the elixir of perpetual life. Early Byzantine times saw the continuation of work, particularly the development of distillation, whose most notable practitioner was the Greek - Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis in the fourth century.

 

After the Muslim conquests, alchemy continued to be developed and practised throughout the Arab world. Through Latin translations, it spread from there and from Byzantine relics into mediaeval and Renaissance Europe. The Arabic writings ascribed to Jabir ibn Hayyan offered a methodical taxonomy of chemical compounds and detailed know how to chemically create the inorganic compound like sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride from organic materials including plants, blood, and hair.

 

Some Arabic Jabirian writings, such as the "Book of Mercy" and the "Book of Seventy," were later translated into Latin under the Latinized name "Geber." In the 13th century in Europe, an unidentified author began to publish alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name. This writer is often referred to as pseudo - Geber. Ab al-Rayhn al-Brn and Avicenna, two later and significant Muslim thinkers, questioned alchemical doctrines, particularly the theory of the transmutation of metals.

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The old alchemical traditions were being reshaped into a scientific field by a group of chemists at Oxford under the influence of the new empirical methods advanced by Sir Francis Bacon and others. These scientists included Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke, and John Mayow. In The Sceptical Chemyst, Boyle in particular challenged numerous accepted chemical theories and advocated that chemical practitioners should be more "philosophical" and less commercially oriented.

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In addition to developing Boyle's law, he rejected the traditional "four elements" and put out a mechanistic alternative based on atoms and chemical interactions that could be subjected to careful experimentation. Many significant discoveries were made in the ensuing decades, including the fact that 'air' is actually made up of a variety of gases. In 1754, the Flemish Jan Baptist van Helmont and the Scottish chemist Joseph Black discovered carbon dioxide, sometimes known as "fixed air."

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